THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

2015 ACADEMIC YEAR

FINAL EXAMINATIONS

CEE 3311 – FLUID MECHANICS

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Attempt any FIVE questions.
2. All questions carry equal marks (20%). Marks for sub-questions are indicated at the end of each sub-
question.
3. If you fail to answer part of a question, assume a value and use it in the subsequent calculations
4. Make sure the computer number is clearly indicated on all the booklets together with the questions
attempted.

TIME: THREE (3) HOURS CLOSED BOOK TEST

Question 1
a) Bernoulli’s Equation for total hydraulic head at a node in a hydraulic network is given as
2
P v
H=Z + + . Explain why when implementing the Hardy-Cross balancing technique during
γ 2g
hydraulic calculations in a municipal water distribution system, the Head at a node is often
P
reduced to H=Z + . (6 marks)
γ

2
P v
(a) While the equation H=Z + + is the exact representation of the Head at a node, in practice the
γ 2g

( )
2
v P
component is often negligible in comparison to the magnitude Z+ . Hence for convenience
2g γ

( )
P
of calculations the total Head H is reduced to Z+ . [6 marks]
γ

b) Discuss the following about Non-Revenue Water (NRW)

i. Give a definition of NRW (8 marks)
ii. What are the components of NRW? (6 marks)

i. Non revenue water (NRW) is water that has been produced and is lost before it reaches the
customer. Losses can be real losses (through leaks, sometimes also referred to as physical
losses) or apparent losses (for example through theft or metering inaccuracies). High levels of
NRW are detrimental to the financial viability of water utilities, as well to the quality of
water itself. NRW is typically measured as the volume of water "lost" as a share of net water

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 produced. However, it is sometimes also expressed as the volume of water lost per km of
water distribution network per day. [8 Marks]
ii. The International Water Association (IWA) has developed a detailed methodology to assess
the various components of NRW. Accordingly NRW has the following components:

 Unbilled authorized consumption

 Apparent losses (water theft and metering inaccuracies)
 Real losses [6 Marks]

Question 2
a) Small density changes in liquids can be very significant when large pressure changes are
present. Give one example and briefly discuss it. (4 marks)
Small density changes in liquids can be very significant when large pressure changes are present e.g. water
hammer which can be heard shortly after sudden closing of a valve in a pipeline: when the valve is closed an
internal pressure wave propagates down the pipe, producing a hammering sound due to pipe motion when the
wave reflects from the closed valve

b) Give a reason (s) why there are only normal forces in fluids at rest. (2 marks)
There are no shear stresses in fluids at rest (∆Ft= 0); hence only normal pressure forces (∆Fn≠ 0); are present.

c) Using the figure below, what does the following equation state? (4 marks)

dN SYS N 2 ,t +∆ t −N 2 ,t N 3 ,t +∆ t −N 1 , t
− lim = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
Equation states that the difference between the rate of change of N within the system and that within the
control volume is equal to the net rate of outflow from the control volume

d) Briefly discuss how a pitot tube works on airplanes. (2 marks)

As the airplane moves through the air, air enters the pitot tube and puts pressure (dynamic) on a diaphragm
inside the airspeed indicator.

e) A hydrometer weighs 0.0216N and has a stem at the upper end that is cylindrical and 2.8mm in
diameter. How much deeper will it float in oil of specific gravity 0.780 than in alcohol of specific
gravity 0.8217? (8 marks)

hydrometer weight 0.0216 N

upper diameter 2.8 mm
oil sp gr 0.78
alchol sp gr 0.821
ρwater 1000 kg/m3

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 In the alcohol
weight of hydrometer=weight of displaced liquid
v1 2.68E-06 m3
h1 0.435 m

In the oil
weight of hydrometer=weight of displaced liquid
v2 2.82E-06 m3
h2 0.458

difference in height
h 0.0229 m

Question 3
Gate AB is 1.2m wide and is hinged at A. Gauge G reads -15 kN/m2, and oil of specific gravity
0.75 is in the right-hand tank. What horizontal force must be applied at B for equilibrium of gate
AB? (20 marks)

Air

A
5.4m Water
Oil 1.8m

Air
IWS 1.8m Ay
O

A A Ax
5.4m Water
1.8m 1.8m
Oil 1.8m

B F
B

g 9.81 N/m3
ρwater 1000 kg/m3
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ϒwater 9.81 kN/m3
ϒoil 0.75

gate width 1.2 m

gate height 1.8 m
gauge reading -15 kN/m2
water depth 5.4 m
oil depth 1.8 m

The forces acting on the gate are shown in the free body diagram and the following formula is used

0.9 m
A 2.16
Foil 14.30 kN

0.5832

yp 1.2

It is necessary to convert the negative pressure due to air to its equivalent in m of the liquid, water
h=-P/ϒ -1.53
This negative pressure head is equivalent to having -1.53 m less of water above level.
It is convenient and useful to employ an imaginary water surface (IWS) 1.53 m below the real
surface and solve the problem by direct use of basic equations. Thus

2.971
Fwater 62.95 kN

0.583

For the submerged rectangular area, yp= 3.062 m from O, or the center of pressure is
0.991 m from A

The sum of the moments about A must equal zero. Taking clockwise as plus,
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 F 25.12 kN

Question 4
a) How is it possible to test airplane models in wind tunnels and predict with confidence the
behavior of their prototypes when moving through still fluid? (4 marks)
Fluid mechanics draws no distinction between two cases of relative motion, namely, when a body moves
rectilinearly at constant speed through a stationary fluid or when a fluid travels at constant velocity past a
stationary body.

b) Mention circumstances when the energy equation can be reduced to a form identical with the
Bernoulli equation. (3 marks)

If :

i. the losses are negligible

ii. there is no shaft work

iii. the flow is incompressible

c) Define a streamline. (2 marks)

Streamline is a line in the flow possessing the following property: the velocity vector of each particle occupying a
point on the streamline is tangent to the streamline.

d) Glycerin (specific gravity 1.26) in a processing plant flows in a pipe at a rate of 700 l/s. At a
point where the diameter is 60cm, the pressure is 300kN/m2. Find the pressure at a second
point where the pipe diameter is 30cm if the second point is 1.0m lower than the first point.
Neglect head loss. (8 marks)

Q 700 l/s
D1 60 cm
P 300 kN/m2
D2 30 cm
z2 -1 m
ϒwater 9.81
sp. gr of glycerine 1.26
V1 2.47 m/s
A1V1=A2V2
V2=4V2= 9.90 m/s

P2 254.5 kN/m2

Question 5
a) Mention one application of the hydraulic jump. (2 marks)
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 Used to cause energy loss for example on the apron of dam spillways

b) Distinguish between laminar and turbulent flows. (3 marks)

Laminar  the fluid flows with no significant mixing of neighbouring fluid particles: the fluid appears to move by
the sliding of laminations of infinitesimal thickness over adjacent layers, with relative motion of fluid particles
occuring at a molecular scale. Viscous shear stresses always influence a laminar flow whereas Turbulent flow 
fluid motion varies irregularly so that quantities such as velocity and pressure show a random variation with time
and space coordinates.

c) Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on this double nozzle by water
flowing through it as shown. Both nozzle jets have a velocity of 12m/s. the axes of the pipe and
both nozzles lie in a horizontal plane. Neglect friction. (15 marks)

10-cm jet
15°
15cm
30° 7.5-cm jet

V2

15°
V1
30°
..

V3

P2A2=0

+y

P1A1 15°
30° (FN/L)x
m
(FN/L)y +x
m P3A3=0 6
D1 15 cm
D2 10 cm
V2 12 m/s
D3 7.5 cm
V3 12 m/s

Continuity A1V1=A2V2+A3V3
V1 8.33 m/s

Jets 2 and 3 are "free", i.e., in the atmosphere, so P2=P3=0

Energy
equation

P1 37,278 N/m2

242.6 N

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 -25.2 N = 25.2 N

The minus sign indicates that the assumed direction of was wrong.

Therefore acts in the negative y direction.

is equal and opposite to

= 242.6 N (in the positive x direction)

= 25.2 N (in the positive y direction)

= 243.9 N at 5.90°

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Question 6
a) State Pascal’s law. (2 marks)
Pascal’s Law states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions independent of the
orientation of the surface around that point.

b) Even though using an ideal fluid approach does not consider all the real properties of fluids, the
results often closely approximate the behavior of real fluids. Briefly explain. (3 marks)
This is because there are numerous situations in which friction plays only a minor role.

c) Briefly discuss the “no-slip condition” due to viscosity. (2 marks)

No-slip condition occurs with all viscous fluids at boundaries when particles of fluid adhere to the walls, and so
their velocities are zero relative to the wall.

d) How is the momentum equation often used? (3 marks)

The momentum equation is often used to determine the forces induced by the flow e.g., the equation allows us
to calculate the force on the support of the elbow in a pipeline or the force on a submerged body in a free-
surface flow.

e) Water is pumped through a pipeline to a treatment plant at a rate of 3.7m 3/s. The 1.5m
diameter suction line is 900m long, and the 0.9m diameter discharge line is 450m long. The
pump adds 40m head to the water, and the total head loss is 16.8m. If the water pressure at
the pipeline entrance is 345N/m2, what is the pressure at the exit, which is 4.5m higher than the
entrance? (10 marks)

Q 3.7 m3/s
Ds 1.5 m
Ls 900
Dd 0.9 m
Ld 450 m
Hp 40 m
HL 16.8 m
Ps 344.75 N/m2
zd 4.5 m

V1 2.09
V2 5.81

P2 169,082.42 N/m2

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Question 7
a) What is the cause of pressure spikes during cavitation? (2 marks)
The bubbles collapse (implosion) upon entering the higher pressure regions, and this collapse produces local
pressure spikes which have the potential to damage hydraulic pumps and turbines, ship’s propeller, pipes,
overflow spillway in dams (pitting, spongy appearance)

b) Briefly explain the effect of pressure drag on a motor vehicle. (3 marks)

Since the pressure within the wake is always less than the pressure at the forward stagnation point, there results
a net pressure difference tending to move the body with the flow, and this force is the pressure drag.
For a moving body such as a plane or car, the front has higher pressure than the rear and therefore the drag is
opposite to the plane or car movement and therefore pressure drag tends to resist motion of the plane/car. It
drags/resists the plane/car. This reduces the vehicles fuel efficiency.

c) What causes the friction to increase in aged pipes? (3 marks)

With age a pipe will corrode and become fouled, changing both the roughness and the pipe diameter with a
resulting increase in the friction factor

d) For the pipes shown below,

i. write an equation for the head loss for all the pipes (2 marks)

ii. justify your answer in (i) above. (2 marks)

The pressures at A and B are common for all the pipes

e) Water and oil flow in horizontal pipelines. A double U-tube manometer is connected between
the pipelines, as shown. Calculate the pressure difference between the water pipe and the oil
pipe. Neglect the weight of air. (8 marks)

air

water 4cm 15cm

oil
sp gr 0.8

23cm
liquid
sp gr
1.8

z1 0
z2 -23
z3 4
z4 19
10
z5 4
S1 1.8
Sair 0
S2 0.8

P2-P5= (P1-P2)+(P2-P3)+(P3-P4)+(P4-P5)
= ϒ(z2-z1)+ϒS1(z3-z2)+ϒSair(z4-z3)+ϒS2(z5-z4)

= 1,334.16 N/m2

END OF EXAMINATION

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