Concept of Thinking:

Thinking is a complex process which involves manipulation of

information as we form concepts. It also engages in problem solving,
reasoning and making decisions. Thinking is a higher cognitive function and
the analysis of thinking processes is part of cognitive psychology. Thinking is
a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of internal representations
(symbols, signs etc.) of things and events for the solution of some specific,
purposeful problem.

Definitions:
Ross: Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect.
Kolesnik: Thinking is the reorganization of concepts.
Woodworth: Thinking is mental exploration for finding out the solution of a
problem.
Characteristics:
• It is one of the most important aspects of ones cognitive behavior.
• It depends on both – perception and memory.
• Thinking is a mental process which starts with a problem and concludes with
its solution.
• It involves trail and error; analysis and synthesis; foresight and hindsight.
• It is a symbolic behavior.
• It is a cognitive activity.
• It is always directed to achieve some purpose.
• It is different from day-dreaming and imagination.
• It is a problem-solving behavior.
• There is mental exploration instead of motor exploration..
(e.g.: if a person gets locked in a room and loses his keys and he starts
searching for them in different places then this becomes motor exploration;
but if he tries to think of different ways of how he can get out of the room then
this becomes mental exploration- THINKING.)
• Thinking is a symbolic activity. (e.g.: engineers use mental images and
symbols to design the plan for buildings)

Tools of Thinking:
1. Percepts, 2. Images / Object, 3. Concepts, 4. Symbols and
Signs, 5. Language.
1. Percepts: A mental impression of something perceived by the senses,
viewed as the basic component in the formation of concepts is called
percepts. Percepts are recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli based
chiefly on memory. Thus, the percept is a perceived form of external stimuli.
The percept also binds sensations from all of the senses in a whole.
2. Images / Objects: Often images are used as an instrument of thinking.
These images may be images of personal experiences of objects, persons or
scenes actually seen, heard or felt. These mental pictures symbolize actual
objects, experiences and activities.
3. Concepts: A concept is a ‘general idea’ that stands for a general class
and represents the common characteristic of all objects or events of this
general class. The concept formation saves our efforts in thinking. E.g. ‘Man
is mortal’; you do not perceive a particular man but mankind in general i.e.
including women. Thus the generalized ‘man’ is a concept.
4. Symbols & signs: These represent & stand for a substitute for actual
subjects, experiences and activities. e.g. Traffic lights, railway signals,
schoolbells, songs, slogans etc stand for symbolic expression. Thus symbols
and signs stimulate & economize thinking. They tell us at once what to do or
how to act.
5. Language: It serves not only as a link for intercommunication but also
acts as a tool for thinking. It consists of words therefore uses symbols;
sometimes we use gestures in our language. When one is listening, reading
or writing, one is stimulated to think. Language is a most effective &
developed tool for the
process of thinking

Types of Thinking
a) Convergent Thinking
b) Divergent Thinking
c) Critical Thinking
d) Reflective Thinking
e) Lateral Thinking

a) Convergent Thinking
Convergent thinking proceeds on the assumption that there is one single best
solution to any problem, and also that the solution can be arrived at on the
basis of the existing knowledge. Thus, convergent thinking involves the
direction of all thought process in one single direction. "Convergent" thinking
is in which the person is good at bringing material from a variety of sources to
bear on a problem, in such a way as to produce the "correct" answer.
Because of the need for consistency and reliability, this is really the only form
of thinking which standardized intelligence tests (and even national exams)
can test.

b) Divergent Thinking

"Divergent" thinking may start from existing knowledge, but it proceeds in

different directions and are not limited or bound by existing knowledge. At
times divergent thinker may question and doubt the adequacy of the existing
knowledge. This type of thinking may start from a common point and move
outward into a variety of perspectives. When fostering divergent thinking,
teachers use the content as a vehicle to prompt diverse or unique thinking
among students rather than a common view. Divergent thinking is also
creative thinking. It generates something new or different. It involves having a
different idea that works as well or better than previous ideas. Thus, divergent
thinkers have an open mind. He is not controlled by the belief that there is
“one best solution” to any problem or “the correct answer” to any question.
Basically divergent thinking is a mode in which a person or group makes
themselves open to new ideas. Generally speaking, they are working with,
what we might call, an open ended problem, a problem for which there is,
there may be, many creative possible solutions, so the divergent thinking
process is one in which we are open to all those ideas and we generate lots of
new ideas. The difference between the two can be seen in the following table:
Critical thinking assesses the worth and validity of something
existent. It involves precise, persistent, objective analysis. When
teachers try to get several learners to think convergent, they try to
help them develop common understanding.
Norris, Stephen P: “Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to
or what not to believe." According to Moore and Parker, Critical Thinking is
"the careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject, or
suspend judgment about a claim, and the degree of confidence with which we
accept or reject it. "Broadly speaking, critical thinking is concerned with
reason, intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed to
emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and closed-mindedness.”

Attributes of a critical thinker:

 asks pertinent questions
 assesses statements and arguments
 is able to admit a lack of understanding or information
 has a sense of curiosity
 is interested in finding new solutions
 is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas
 is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and
weigh them against facts
 listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback
 sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self
assessment
 suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered
 looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
 is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found
 looks for proof
 examines problems closely
 Is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant.

d) Reflective thinking
Dewey's definition of reflective thinking:
"Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion
to which it tends" Reflective thinking is normally a slow process. It takes
considerable time to work on inferring and combining by reflecting upon what
we have learnt:
This is a higher form of thinking.
• It aims at solving complex problems.
• It requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences and the finding of
new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle instead of a
simple association of experiences or ideas.
• There is insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.
• It takes all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into account in order
to arrive at a solution of the problem in hand.
• It links the information we possess into tighter network, thus helps to
remember the matter better.
• It criticizes what one has learned and tries to expose weaknesses and
shortcomings.
• Enhancing decision making requires that we learn from our successes and
failures and catalog mentally for future retrieval what has occurred and why.

e) Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono, a Maltese
psychologist, physician and writer. It first appeared in the title of his book The
Use of Lateral Thinking, published in 1967. De Bono defines lateral thinking
as methods of thinking concerned with changing concepts and perception.
Lateral thinking is about reasoning that is not immediately obvious and about
ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic.
De Bono identifies four critical factors associated with lateral thinking:
(1)recognize dominant ideas that polarize perception of a problem, (2)
searching for different ways of looking at things, (3) relaxation of rigid control
of thinking, and (4) use of chance to encourage other ideas.
Lateral thinking involves discarding the obvious, leaving
behind traditional modes of thought, and throwing away
preconceptions.
 Explanation: A person would use lateral thinking when they want to move
from one known idea to creating new ideas.
 Lateral thinking can be used to help in solving problems but can also be
used for much more.
 With lateral thinking problems can be solved and questions can be
answered, as lateral thinkers are able to use their creative skills to change
perceptions and come up with new concepts and ideas.
 The lateral thinking technique of ‘challenge’ is designed to prevent the
mind sliding smoothly down the existing patterns.
 Lateral Thinking is the ability to add a slight "twist" to the pattern of logical
thinking to produce an unexpected answer!
 Essentially, lateral thinking is a way of attacking problems from other
angles, as opposed to the more traditional linear and logical ways.

De bono uses the example of chess, where logic normally suffices, if the
pieces are a given. Lateral thinking acknowledges that in real life we mostly
just assume the pieces are given, when really we need to change those
pieces or look beyond them for the most useful solutions. Lateral Thinking
helps individual to develop skills to:
 Increase productive idea output.
 Design the future.
 Find fresh new solutions to intractable problems.
 Escape the constraints of routine thinking.
 Appreciate the diversity of thinking among team members.
 Plan and lead innovation meetings that deliver powerful results.
 Find new areas of opportunity