EEL4116 Power Station

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 Course Outcomes

Course
Outcomes Description
Apply the concept of load characteristics to choose
CO1
capacity of power plants.
Evaluate the working of different conventional power
CO2 plants to recommend a suitable one for a particular
case.
Design a simple distribution substation for a particular
CO3
application.
CO4 Compute tariff calculations for energy consumption.

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 Assessments Course Outcomes

Mark Distribution (%)

Component Sub-components CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4

Final Exam Q1 12 x
Q2 12 x
Q3 12 x
Q4 12 x
Q5 12 x
Test Test 1, Q1 8 x
Test 2, Q2 12 x
Field Trip Field Trip 5 x
Assignment Q1 5 x
Q2 5 x
Q3 5 x

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Programme
Outcomes Description
Acquire and apply knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering
PO1
fundamentals to solve complex engineering problems.
Acquire technical competencies in a specialised engineering discipline to
PO2
solve complex engineering problems
Identify and analyse complex engineering problems to reach
PO3 substantiated conclusions using fundamental principles of mathematics,
science and engineering.
Design solutions for complex engineering problems that meet specified
PO4 needs with appropriate considerations for public health and safety,
society and the environment

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 Course
Outcomes Programme Outcomes
PO2 PO4

CO1 x

CO2 x

CO3 x

CO4 x

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 References

1. P. K. Nag, “Power Plant Engineering”, Tata

McGraw Hill, 2002.
2. 1. A. K. Raja, Amit Prakash Srivastava, “Power
Plant Engineering”, New Age International, 2007.
3. Thomas Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp,
“Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering”,
McGraw-Hill Education, 1997
4. G. A. Skrotzki and W. Vopat, “Power Station
Engineering and Economy”

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 Introduction: Economics of
Power Generation
• Electricity is the most convenient form of energy
• A power plant is assembly of systems or
subsystems to generate electricity
• Types of power plant: thermal, nuclear, hydro,
gas turbine, geothermal
• Thermal, nuclear, geothermal –steam
• Steam, diesel, gas, nuclear - thermal
• Gas turbine- ideal as peaking units for short
duration to meet peak load demand
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Classification of Power Plant

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 Load Characteristics
The load characteristic plays an important role in
 determining the total power and energy requirements of
the system
 planning the installed capacity of a power plant
 selection of suitable generating capacity for each unit of
the plant.
Terms connected with the load characteristics are:
Demand
The demand of a system is the load at the receiving
terminals (usually in kW or kVA) averaged over a suitable
specific interval of time of short duration.

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Demand Interval
It is the period over which the load is averaged.
Load Curve (or Chronological Load Curve)
 It represents the load in its time sequence.
 This curve is obtained by plotting the station load along Y-
axis and the time when it occurs along X-axis. Usually, it is
plotted for one day by taking average load based on the
time interval t, which is usually an hour.
 The area under the curve represents the total energy
consumed by the load in one day.

20kW

15kW
Load curve
10kW

5kW
2kW

6AM 12N 6PM 11PM 6AM 10

Time
Load-Duration Curve 20kW
 It represents the same data
(i.e. load versus time) but 15kW

the ordinates are

rearranged in magnitude 10kW

sequence (not time

5kW
sequence).
2kW
 Here, the greatest load is
plotted on the left, lesser 0 5 11 17 24
Time in hr
load towards the right and
the least load on the Load-duration curve
extreme right, as shown.
 The areas under the load curve and load duration curve are
equal and each represents the total units consumed during a
day of 24 hours.
 The load and load – duration curves can be daily, weekly,
monthly and annual. 11
The total load supplied by a generating station is normally
divided into three parts:
 Base load
 Intermediate load
 Peak load
The base load is the load below which the demand never falls
and is supplied 100% of the time. The peak load occurs for
about 15% of the time. The intermediate load represents the
remaining load region in the load curve. These types of loads
are shown in the next figure.

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 Peak load Peak load
Load curve
Load-duration curve

Intermediate load
Intermediate load

Base load Base load

Time Time

Load Energy Curve (or Integrated Load Duration Curve)

• It represents the relation between a particular load on the station and
the total number of kWh produced at or below this load. The load in
kW is taken along the ordinate (Y-axis) and kWh generated up to this
load along the abscissa (X-axis) as shown.

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  This curve is derived from the load-duration curve.
 For example, for a load of 2 kW, the number of units generated
is = 2 x 24 = 48 kWh. It corresponds to point A on the curve.
 For a load of 5 kW, the units generated are = 5 x 17 + 2 x 7 =
99kWh. It corresponds to point B.
 For a load of 10 kW, the units generated are = 10 x 11 + 5 x 6
+ 2 x 7 = 154 kWh (point C).
 Finally, for a load of 20 kW, the number of units generated is =
20 x 5 + 10 x 6 + 5 x 6 + 2 x 7 = 204 kWh (point D).
D
20kW Load- 20

duration kW
15kW 15
curve
C
Load
10kW 10
energy
B
5kW 5 curve
A
2kW

0 5 11 17 24 100 200
Time in hr Energy in kWh 14
Average Demand
Average demand of an installation is the average power
requirement of the installation during some specific period of time
of considerable duration such as day or a month or year.
kWh consumed in a period
Average Demand 
Hours in the period
Maximum Demand
 It is defined as the greatest of all the demands which have
occurred during a given period.
 It should be clearly understood that it is not the greatest
instantaneous demand but the greatest average power
demand occurring during any relatively short interval of 1-
minute, 15-minute or 30 minute duration within that period.
 The maximum demand statement should also express the
demand interval.

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 Figure shows the graph of a hypothetical load curve for 5 hours.
 The maximum demand on 30-minute interval basis occurs during the
interval AB i.e. from 8.30 p.m. to 9.00 p.m. Its value is 288kW.
 If the maximum demand were to be based on a 15-min. interval, then
it will occur during the 15-min. interval MN and its value will be 342
kW.

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Why is it the average maximum demand over a
definitive interval of time is of interest rather than the
instantaneous maximum demand?
 Maximum demand determination is mostly used for estimating
the capacity of the generator and other electrical apparatus
required for serving a certain specific load.
 Consider the graph of the power load to be impressed on a
certain generator.
 Find the rating of a
generator capable of
supplying this load.
 There are peak loads of
short duration at points
A, B, C and D of values
250, 330, 230 and 260
kW, respectively.

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 However, a half-hour
max demand is 210
kW, during period of (E
– F). Hence, the
capacity of the
generator based on
30-minute maximum
demand, is 210 kW.
 The 210-kW generator
will certainly meet the
instantaneous peak
demands more than 210 kW at A, B, C, and D.
Demand factor
 Demand factor (DF) is used for estimating the proportion of the
total connected load which will come as maximum demand on
the power plant at one time.
 It is the ratio of actual maximum demand to the total connected
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load.
 Maximum demand
Demand Factor 
Total connected load
 The idea of a demand factor was introduced because of the
fact that normally the kW or kVA maximum demand of a group
of electrical devices is always less than the sum of the kW or
kVA ratings or capacity of these devices.
 Maximum demand can be determined as in graph whereas
connected load can be calculated by adding together the
name-plate ratings of all the electrical devices in the
installation.
 DF is always less than unity.
Diversified Demand
 Diversified demand implies that maximum demands of various
consumers belonging to different classes and the various circuit
elements in a distribution system are not coincidental.
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 In other words, the maximum demands of various consumers
occur at different times during the day and not simultaneously.
 It is extremely fortunate that there exists a diversity or non-
simultaneity of maximum demand of various consumers which
results in lower demand on the plant.

Diversity factor
sum of individual maximum demands
Diversity factor 
maximum demand of the whole load
 High value of diversity factor means that more consumers can
be supplied for a given station maximum demand and so
lower prices can be offered to consumer.
 Usually, domestic load gives higher value of diversity factor
than industrial load.
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Example 1
Assume that there are 6 residential consumers connected to a
distribution transformer. The connected load per consumer is 9.0
kW. The demand factor and diversity factor of the group of 6
residential consumers are 0.65 and 1.1, respectively. Calculate the
(coincident) maximum demand on the transformer.
Solution
Demand factor of each consumer, DFi =
maximum demand of each consumer
 0.65
total connected load
Maximum demand of each consumer = 9x0.65 = 5.85 kW
sum of individual maximum demands 6  5.85
Diversity factor    1.1
maximum demand of the whole load MD
The maximum demand on the transformer
= 5.86x6/1.1 = 31.9 kW
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Load Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the average power over a designated
period of time to the maximum demand occurring during the period.
Average power
Load Factor 
Peak load or Maximum demand
The average power may be either generated or consumed
depending on whether the load factor is required for the
generating equipment or receiving equipment. When applied to
generating station,
Actual energy produced in a year
Annual load (plant) factor 
Maximum Demand  8760
Actual energy produced in one month
Monthly load (plant) factor 
Maximum Demand  720
Actual energy produced in a day
Daily load (plant) factor 
Maximum Demand  24 22
Example 2
The load graph of a generating equipment is shown in the figure.
The load is measured at a time interval of 1 hour. Find the load
factor of the generator.
300
Average power = 2435/24 =
kW 101.7kW

30-minutes max demand = 270 kW

200

100

12N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 N
Time in
hr
Solution
Average power 101.7
The (daily) Load factor    0.3767
Maximum demand 270
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Significance of Load Factor
 Load factor is an index to the proportion of the whole time a
generator plant or system is being worked to its full capacity.
 The generating equipment has to be selected on the basis of the
maximum power demand that is likely to be imposed on it.
However, it seldom happens that the generating equipment is
loaded to its maximum load during all the 8,760 hours of a year.
 But whether the equipment is being worked to its full capacity or
not, there are certain charges (like interest, depreciation, taxes,
insurance, part of staff salaries etc.) which are adding up
continuously.
 In other word, the equipment is costing money to its owner
whether working or idle.
 The equipment earns profit only during those hours when it is
fully loaded and the more it is fully loaded the more is the profit to
the owner.
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 Hence, from the point of view of economics it is desirable to
obtain high load factors.
 If the load factor is poor i.e. kWh of electrical energy produced
is small, then charge per kWh would obviously be high. But if
load factor is high i.e. the number of kWh generated is large,
then cost of production and hence charge per kWh are reduced
because now the fixed charges are distributed over a large
number of units of energy.
Plant Factor or Capacity Factor
This factor relates specifically to a generating plant unlike load
factor which may relate either to generating or receiving equipment.
As defined earlier,
Average load per year or per month or per day
Plant (Capacity) factor 
Maximum plant rating
If the plant capacity is same as the maximum demand then the
capacitor factor and the load factor will be numerically equal.
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The difference between the plant capacity and the maximum
demand is known as the reserve capacity.
Connected load Factor
This factor relates only to the receiving equipment and is
defined as the ratio of the average power input to the
connected load.
average power input
Connected load factor 
connected load
average power input max. demand
Connected load factor  
max. demand connected load
 (Load factor)  (Demand factor)
Energy produced per year
Use factor =
Plant capacity  hours in operation
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Example 3
A consumer has the following load-schedule for a day:
From midnight to 6.00a.m. = 200W
From 6.00a.m to 12.00 noon = 3000W
From 12.00 noon to 1.00p.m = 100W
From 1.00p.m to 4.00p.m = 4000W
From 4.00p.m to 9.00p.m = 2000W
From 9.00p.m to midnight = 1000W
Find the load factor.
Solution
Energy consumed per day
= (200 x 6) + (3000 x 6) + (100 x 1) + (4000 x 3) + (2000 x 5) +
(1000 x 3) = 44300Wh
Average power = 44300 / 24 = 1846W
Maximum demand is 4000 W
Average load 1846
(Daily) load factor    0.461
Maximum Demand 4000
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Example 4
A generating station has a connected load of 43 MW and a
maximum demand of 20 MW. The total annual energy generated
by the station is 61,500,000 kWh (Units). Calculate the load factor,
demand factor and connected load factor.

Solution
Max demand 20
Demand factor    0.465
Total connected load 43
Average power supplied = 61,500,000 / 8,760 = 7,020 kW
Average load 7020
(Annual) load factor    0.351
Maximum Demand 20,000
Connected load factor = demand factor x load factor
= 0.465x0.351 = 0.1632

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Example 5
A power station has a load cycle as under:
260MW for 6hr; 200MW for 8hr; 160MW for 4hr; 100MW for 6hr.
If the power station is equipped with 4 generating sets of 75MW
each, calculate the load factor and the capacity factor from the
above data.

Solution
energy supplied in a day
Daily load factor 
maximum demand x 24
Energy supplied per day
= (260 x 6) + (200 x 8) + (160 x 4) + (100 x 6)
= 4, 400 MWh
Maximum demand of the station = 260 MW
Average demand = 4400/24 = 183.33 MW
Therefore, station (daily) load factor =183.33/260 = 0.7051
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 Average demand
Capacity factor 
Installed capacity
Total installed capacity of the station = 75 x 4 = 300MW
183.33
Capacity factor   0.611 or 61.11%
300

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 Upcoming Activities
• Technical Visit to Janamanjung M5- 29th
July 2019
• Technical Talk – 21st August 2019

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Attendance

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