MATERIALS TESTING

Why are metals tested ?

Ensure quality
Test properties

Prevent failure in use

Make informed choices in using materials

Factor of Safety is the ratio comparing the

actual stress on a material and the safe
useable stress.
Two forms of testing
Mechanical tests Destructive testing; the
material may be physically tested to
destruction. Will normally specify a value for
properties such as strength, hardness,
toughness,etc
Non-destructive tests (NDT) samples or
finished articles are tested before being used.
HARDNESS TESTING

Hardness is the ability to withstand dents or

scratches
Hardness testing machine
The indenter is pressed
into the metal
Softer materials leave a
deeper indentation
Brinell hardness test
Uses ball indentor.
Cannot be used for thin
materials.
Ball may deform on
very hard materials
Surface area of
indentation is
measured.
Measure the diameter
after indent
Vickers hardness test
Uses square pyramid
indenter.
Accurate results.
Measures length of
diagonal on
indentation.
Rockwell hardness tests
Gives direct reading.
Rockwell B (ball) used
for soft materials.
Rockwell C (cone) uses
diamond cone for hard
materials.
Flexible, quick and
easy to use.
Impact Tests
Toughness of metals is the ability to
withstand shock load and impact. It will not
fracture when twisted.
Izod test
Strikes at 167 Joules.
Test specimen is held
vertically.
Notch faces striker.
Charpy impact test
Strikes form higher
position with 300
Joules.
Test specimen is held
horizontally.
Notch faces away form
striker.
Material Deformation and
inspection
Creep
Creep is the slow deformation of a material
over time resulting from a constant force
acting on the material.
Creep is more likely to occur if materials are
subjected to high temperatures.
Creep
When a weight is hung from a piece of
lead and left for a number of days the lead
will stretch. This is said to be creep.
Problems with creep increase when the
materials are subject to high temperature
or the materials themselves have low
melting points such as lead. Creep can
cause materials to fail at a stress well
below there tensile strength.
Fatigue
Metal fatigue is failure due to on/off loading or
cyclic stressing.
Fatigue failure begins as a minute crack
which grows under the action of fluctuating
stress.
Fatigue
Fatigue is due to the repeated loading and unloading.
When a material is subjected to a force acting in different
directions at different times it can cause cracking. In time this
causes the material to fail at a load that is much less than its
tensile strength, this is fatigue failure. Vibration for example is a
serious cause of fatigue failure.

Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice.

1. A smooth surface finish reduces the chance of surface cracking.
2. Sharp corners should be avoided.
3. Corrosion should be avoided as this can cause fatigue cracks.
 Microscopic examination of metals allows
for more detailed examination of grain
size and some impurities.
An optical microscope is used for this type
of inspection.

Macroscopic is a visual inspection

process. Physical manufacturing defects
can be detected by eye or low powered
magnifying glass.
Factor of Safety
Factorof Safety is the ratio comparing the
actual stress on a material and the safe
useable stress.
Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
Uses an extensometer to apply measured force to
an test specimen. The amount of extension can be
measured and graphed.
Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity,
tensile strength, ductility and shear strength
can be gauged.
Test specimens can be round or flat.
Extensometer
Producing graphs

Two basic graphs:

Load extension graph.

Stress strain graph.

Load - extension graph for low
carbon steel
Questions asked on this
section:
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
Young's Modulus- Stress over Strain

Proof stress
Draw graph for this tensile test
Identify the straight line part of the graph.
Youngs Modulus (E)
E = Stress
Strain

Stress = Load
Cross section area
Strain = Extension

Original length
Youngs Modulus for stress
strain graph
Select point on elastic
part of graph
Calculate Youngs
Modulus with this point

E = Stress
Strain
Youngs Modulus for Load
extension graph
Proof Stress
The stress that causes a % increase in gauge
length.
It can be found by drawing a line parallel to
the straight part of the graph.
A value can be taken from the vertical axis.
Proof stress for Load
Extension graph
Proof stress for Stress Strain
graph
Tensile Strength

Tensile strength = Maximum Load

Cross section area

Maximum load is the highest point on the graph.

Often called Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

Stress-Strain Graph
A Upper yield point.
B Ultimate Tensile Strength.
C Fracture point.
 (ii)
Up to point B, the specimen will have thinned
uniformly as the load increased. At this point,
the specimen will begin to neck as it elongates

with applied force.

At point C, the specimen is likely to have

fractured with the distinctive cup and cone

fracture. One side of the specimen has a rough

cone shape and the other has a hollow cup

shape.
Non-destructive
testing (NDT)
Why use NDT?
Components are not destroyed
Can test for internal flaws

Useful for valuable components

Can test components that are in use

Penetrant testing
Used for surface flaws.
The oil and chalk test is a traditional version
of this type of testing. Coloured dyes are now
used.
Magnetic particle testing
Used for ferrous metals.
Detects flaws close to the surface of the material.
The component to be tested must first be
magnetized.
Magnetic particles which can be dry or in solution
are sprinkled onto the test piece.
The particles stick to the magnetic field and flaws
can be inspected visually by examining the pattern
to see if it has been distorted.
The component must be demagnetized after testing.
Eddy current testing
Used for non-ferrous metals
A.C. current is passed through the coil.
The test piece is passed under the coil causing
secondary currents called eddy currents to flow
through the test piece. This causes a magnetic field
to flow in the test piece.
The flaws are detected on an oscilloscope by
measuring a change in the magnetic field.
Eddy current tests are most effective for testing non-ferrous
metals of uniform section.
 Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic Sound waves are bounced off the component
and back to a receiver. If there is a change in the time
taken for the wave to return this will show a flaw. This is
similar to the operation of a sonar on a ship.
Operation.
1. The ultrasonic probe sends the sound wave through the
piece.
2. The sound wave bounces of the piece and returns.
3. The results are then placed on the display screen in the
form of peaks.
4. Where the peaks fluctuate this will show a fault in the
piece.
Uses.
This is generally used to find internal flaws in large
forgings, castings and in weld inspections.
Radiography (X-ray) Testing
1. The x-ray are released by heating the cathode.
2. They are then accelerated by the D.C. current
and directed onto the piece by the tungsten
anode.
3. The x-rays then pass through the test piece onto
an x-ray film which displays the results.
4. The x-rays cannot pass through the faults as
easily making them visible on the x-ray film.
Uses.
This is a test generally used to find internal flaws
in materials. It is used to check the quality of
welds, for example, to find voids or cracks.