Renewable Energy Technologies

NSLT 08209

Course Tutor: Mr. Mlay J. J

Assistant Lecturer

Department of Electrical and Power Engineering (EPE)

College of Engineering and Technology (CET)
Mbeya University of Science and Technology (MUST)
Mbeya-Tanzania,
2021/2022
 MATERIAL TESTING ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Testing of materials are necessary for many reasons,
and the subject of materials testing is very broad one.

Some of the purpose for the testing of materials are:

i. To determine the quality of a material. This may be one
aspect of process control in production plant.
ii. To determine such properties as strength, hardness,
and ductility.
iii. To check for flaws/faults within a material or in a
finished component.
iv. To assess the likely performance of the material in a
particular service condition
 TYPES OF MATERIAL TESTING ON
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

I. THE TENSILE TEST

II. THE COMPRESSION TEST
III. DUCTILITY TESTING
IV. IMPACT TESTING (TOUGHNESS TESTING)
V. HARDNESS TESTING
VI. CREEP TEST
VII. FATIGUE
 I. THE TENSILE TEST
• The tensile test is widely used for measuring the stiffness,
strength and ductility of a material.
• The testing machine subjects the test-piece to an axial
elongation and the resultant load on the specimen is
measured.
• Depending on the nature of the specimen it may be round
or rectangular in cross-section, with the region between
the grips usually being of reduced cross–section.

The load–elongation data are normally converted to stress

and strain:
Stress = Load/Cross-sectional area
Strain = Extension of gauge length/Original gauge
length
 THE TENSILE TEST(CONT.)

Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel.

 THE TENSILE TEST(CONT.)

• From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied

load. Also, if the load is removed the specimen returns to its
original length. Under these relatively lightly loaded
conditions the material is showing elastic properties

• From B to C the metal suddenly extends with no increase in

load. If the load is removed metal will not spring back to its
original length and it is said to have taken permanent set.

• Therefore, B is called "limit of proportionality ", if the force

is increased beyond this point a sudden extension occurs
with no increase in force. known as the " yield point" C.
 THE TENSILE TEST(CONT.)

• The yield stress: is the stress at the yield point; i.e. the load at B
divided by the original cross-section area of the specimen. Usually,
designer works at 50⁒ of this figure to allow for a 'factor of safety'.

• From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load, if the

load is removed little or no spring back will occur. Under these
relatively greater loads the material is showing plastic properties.

• The point D is the 'ultimate tensile strength' when referred

extension graphs or the 'ultimate tensile stress' (UTS) when
referred to stress-strain graphs.
The UTC is calculated by dividing the load at D by the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
 THE TENSILE TEST(CONT.)

• From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching

under reduced load conditions. The specimen is
thinning out (necking) so the 'load per unit area' or
stress is actually increasing. The specimen finally work
hardens to such an extent that it breaks at E.

• In practice, values of load and extension are of limited

use since they apply to one particular size of specimen
and it is more usual to plot the stress-strain curve.
 II. THE COMPRESSION TEST
• Because of the presence of submicroscopic cracks,
brittle materials are often weak in tension, as tensile
stress tends to propagate those cracks which are
oriented perpendicular to the axis of tension.

• The tensile strengths they exhibit are low and

usually vary from sample to sample. These same
materials can nevertheless be quite strong in
compression.

• Brittle materials are chiefly used in compression,

where their strengths are much higher.
 II. THE COMPRESSION TEST,,,cont..
• Because the compression test increase the cross-
sectional area of the sample, necking never
occurs.

• Extremely ductile materials are seldom tested in

compression because the sample is constrained by
friction at the points of contact with the plants of
the apparatus.
• This constraint gives rise to a complicated stress Compression
distribution which can only be analyzed in an test of brittle
material.
fashion.

• Brittle materials include glass, ceramic, graphite, and

some alloys with extremely low plasticity, in which
cracks can initiate without plastic deformation
 III. DUCTILITY TESTING
• Ductility- the property of the material that enables it to be drawn
out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs.

• Most metals and polymers are good examples of ductile materials,

i.e. gold, silver, copper, erbium, terbium, and samarium (can be
drawn into a wire)

• The percentage elongation, as determined by the tensile test, has

already been discussed as a measure of ductility.

• Another way of assessing ductility is a simple bend test.

• There are several ways in which this test can be applied, as shown in
figure 2. The test chosen will
i. depend upon the ductility of the material and the
ii. severity of the test required.
 III. DUCTILITY TESTING,,,cont..
 Close bend test The specimen is bent over on itself and
flattened. No allowance is made for spring back, and the
material is satisfactory if the test can be completed
without the metal tearing or fracturing.

This also applies to the following tests.

 Angle bend test The material is bent over a former and
the nose radius of the former and the angle of bend (θ˚)
are fixed by specification. Again no allowance is made for
spring back.
 180 ˚ (C) bend test This is a development of the angle bend
test using a flat former as shown. Only the nose radius of
the former is specified.
 III. DUCTILITY TESTING,,,cont..

Figure 2. Bend tests:

(a) close bend; (b) angle bend; (c) 180 :C bend.
 III. DUCTILITY TESTING,,,cont..
• Factors affecting ductility
i. Metals with FCC (face-centered cubic) and BCC crystal
structure show higher ductility at high temperatures
compared to those with HCP (hexagon close-packed)
crystal structure.

ii. Grain size has significant influence on ductility. Many

alloys show super-plastic behavior when grain size is very
small of the order of few microns.

iii. Steels with higher oxygen content show low ductility.

iv. In some alloys impurities even in very small percentages

have significant effect on ductility.
 III. DUCTILITY TESTING,,,cont..
• Factors affecting ductility

v. Temperature is a major factor that influences ductility

and hence formability In general it increases ductility,
however, ductility may decrease at certain
temperatures due to phase transformation and micro-
structural changes brought about by increase in
temperature.

vi. Hydrostatic pressure increases ductility.

vii. Strain rate also influences ductility.

viii. Duplex microstructures generally lead to lower ductility.

 IV. IMPACT TESTING (TOUGHNESS TESTING)

• Impact tests consist of striking a suitable specimen

with a controlled blow and measuring the energy
absorbed in bending or breaking the specimen.

• The energy value indicates the toughness of the

material under test.

• Figure3. shows a typical impact testing machine.

the energy absorbed in carrying out the test is in
joules (J).
IV. IMPACT TESTING (TOUGHNESS TESTING),,cont..

Figure 3. shows a typical impact testing machine which has a

hammer that is suspended like a pendulum, a vice for holding
the specimen in the correct position relative to the hammer
and a dial for indicating the energy absorbed in carrying out
the test in joules (J).
IV. IMPACT TESTING (TOUGHNESS TESTING),,cont..

• When the heavy pendulum, released from a

known height, strikes and breaks the sample
before it continues its upward swing.

• From knowledge of the mass of the pendulum

and the difference between the initial and final
heights, the energy absorbed in fracture can be
calculated, as shown in figure. 4 the schematic
drawing of the impact test machine.
IV. IMPACT TESTING (TOUGHNESS TESTING),,cont..

Figure 4. Schematic drawing of standard

impact-testing apparatus
IV. IMPACT TESTING (TOUGHNESS TESTING),,cont..

Figure 5. Impact loading:

(a) a rod of high-carbon (1.0%) steel in the annealed (soft) condition

will bend struck with a hammer (UTS (Ultimate Tensile Strength)
925 MPa);

(b) After hardening and lightly tempering, the same piece steel will
fracture when hit with a hammer despite its UTS having increased to
1285 MPa.
 V. HARDNESS TESTING
• Hardness: defined as the resistance of a material to
abrasion by another hard body (good hardness
generally means that the material is resistant to
scratching and wear) .

• It is by indentation that most hardness tests are

performed.

• A hard indenter is pressed into the specimen by a

standard load, and the magnitude of the
indentation (either area or depth) is taken as a
measure of hardness.
 V. HARDNESS TESTING,,,cont..

• Hardness tests are commonly used for assessing

material properties because they are quick and
convenient.

• However, a variety of testing methods is appropriate

due to differences in hardness among different
materials.

• The most well known hardness tests are

a. Brinell and
b. Rockwell.
 a. THE BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
• In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard
steel ball into the surface of the test piece, using a
known load.
• It is important to choose the combination of load and
ball size carefully so that the indentation is free from
distortion and suitable for measurement.
• The relationship of the Brinell hardness [HB] which is
between load P (kg), the diameter D (mm) of the
hardened ball indenter and the diameter d (mm) of the
indentation on the surface is given by the expression:
 a. THE BRINELL HARDNESS TEST,,,cont
• The diameter of the indentation is measured in two
directions at right angles and the average taken.

• The diameter is measured either by using a microscope

scale, or by a projection screen with micrometer
adjustment

Figure 6. Principle
of the Brinell
hardness test
 a. THE BRINELL HARDNESS TEST,,,cont
 To ensure consistent results, the following precautions
should be observed.
i. The thickness of the specimen should be at least seven
times the depth of the indentation to allow unrestricted
plastic flow below the indenter.
ii. The edge of the indentation should be at least three times
the diameter of the indentation from the edge of the test
piece.
iii. The test is unsuitable for materials whose hardness exceeds
500 HB (Brinell hardness), as the ball indenter tends to
flatten.

There are a definite relationship between strength and hardness so it

is possible to measure the tensile strength from the hardness test.
 b. THE VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
• This test is preferable to the Brinell test where
hard materials are concerned, as it uses a
diamond indenter.

• Diamond is the hardest material known -

approximately 6000 HB.

• The diamond indenter is in the form of a

square-based pyramid with an angle of 136˚
between opposite faces.
 c .THE ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
• Although not as reliable as the Brinell and Vickers
hardness tests for laboratory purposes, the Rockwell test
is widely used in industry as it is quick, simple and direct
reading.

• Universal electronic hardness testing machines are now

widely used which, at the turn of a switch, can provide
either Brinell, Vickers or Rockwell tests and show the
hardness number as a digital readout automatically.

• They also give a "hard copy‘ printout of the test result

together with the test conditions and date.
 c .THE ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
• In principle the Rockwell hardness test compares the
difference in depth of penetration of the indenter when
using forces of two different values.

i. That is, a minor force is first applied (to take up the

backlash and pierce the skin of the component) and
the scale are set to read zero.

ii. Then, a major force is applied over and above the

minor force and the increased depth of penetration is
shown on the scales of the machine as a direct
reading of hardness without the need for calculation
or conversion tables.
 c. THE ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
• The standard Rockwell test can not be used for
very thin sheet and foils and for these the
Rockwell superficial hardness test is used.

Figure 7. The Rockwell

hardness test
 d. SHOE SCLEROSCOPE
• The test piece must be small enough to mount in the
testing machine, and hardness is measured as a function
of indentation.

• However, the scleroscope is not like other types of

hardness tests based their measure on the ratio of
applied load divided by the resulting impression are [ like
Brinell and Vicker well] or by the depth of impression
[ like Rock well].

• The scleroscope is an instrument that measures the

rebound height of a hammer dropped from a certain
distance above the surface of the material to be tested.
 d. SHOE SCLEROSCOPE,,,cont…

• The hammer consist of a weight with diamond

indenter attached to it.

• The scleroscope therefore measures the

mechanical energy absorbed by the material
when the indenters strikes the surface.

• The energy absorbed gives an indication of

resistance to penetration, which matches our
definition of hardness.
 vi. CREEP TEST
• Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over
a long period of time it undergoes a slow permanent
deformation and this is termed as “creep”. This is dependent
on temperature. Usually at elevated temperatures creep is
high.
• Even at constant stress, materials continue to deform for an
indefinite period of time. This time – dependent deformation
is called creep.
• At temp less than 40 percent of the absolute melting point,
the extent of creep is negligible, but at temperatures higher
than this it becomes increasingly important.

• It is for this reason that the creep test is commonly thought

of as a high-temperature test.
 vi. CREEP TEST,,,cont..
• The majority of creep testing is conducted in the tensile
mode, and the type of test-piece used is similar to the
normal tensile test-piece.

• Most creep testing is carried out under constant-load

conditions and utilizes dead weights acting through a
simple lever system.

• In the creep testing an extensometer readings are noted

at regular time intervals until the required amount of
data has been obtained, or until the test-piece fractures,
depending on whether the object of the test is to
determine the creep rate or to determine the total
creep strain.
 Vii FATIGUE
• Fatigue, as understood by materials
technologists, is a process in which damage
accumulates due to the repetitive application of
loads that may be well below the yield point.

• The process is dangerous because a single

application of the load would not produce any ill
effects, and a conventional stress analysis might
lead to a assumption of safety that does not exist.
 vii. FATIGUE(CONT.)

• In one popular view of fatigue in metals, the

fatigue process is thought to begin at an internal
or surface flaw where the stresses are
concentrated, and consists initially of shear flow
along slip planes.

• Over a number of cycles, this slip generates

intrusions and extrusions that begin to
resemble a crack.
 vii. FATIGUE(CONT.)
• A true crack running inward from an intrusion region
may propagate initially along one of the original slip
planes, but eventually turns to propagate transversely
to the principal normal stress as seen in Fig. 8.

Figure 8: Intrusion-
Extrusion model of
fatigue crack initiation.
 vii. FATIGUE(CONT.)
• The progression of fatigue damage can be classified
into a number of stages involving

(a) the nucleation of microscopic cracks,

(b) their growth and coalescence and
(c) the propagation of a macroscopic crack until
failure.

• The original approach to fatigue design involved

characterizing the total fatigue life to failure of
initially un-cracked test pieces in terms of the number
of applications of a cyclic stress range.