Addis Ababa University

Department of Foreign Languages & Literature

Course Title

Basic Writing Skills

(Course Code: Enla1012 )

Lecture Note
by
Badima Belay (PhD)

April, 2016

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 Course Content
Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences
1.1. Sentence Kinds (Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory)
1.2. Sentence Types (Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-Complex)
1.3. Faulty Sentences
1.3.1. Fragments
1.3.2. Run-ons
1.3.3. Comma Splices
1.3.4. Dangling Modifiers
1.3.5. Misplaced Modifiers
1.3.6. Faulty Parallelism
1.3.7. Agreement Errors
Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
2.1. Structure of a Paragraph
2.2. Characteristics of a Good Paragraph
 Cohesion
 Transition words
 Synonyms
 Pronouns
 Coherence
 Chronological
 Spatial
 Emphatic
 Completeness
2.3. Basic Types of Paragraph
2.3.1. Exposition
2.3.2. Narrative
2.3.3. Descriptive
2.3.4. Argumentative
2.4. Techniques of Paragraph Development
2.4.1. Definition
2.4.2. Exemplification
2.4.3. Classification
2.4.4. Cause and Effect
2.4.5. Compare and Contrast
2.4.6. Process
2.4.7. Narration
2.4.8. Description
Unit Three: Essay Writing
3.1. What is an Essay?
3.2. Structure of an Essay
3.3. Types of an Essay
3.3.1. Expository
3.3.2. Descriptive
3.3.3. Argumentative
3.3.4. Narrative

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 Unit One
Writing Effective Sentence
1.1. Sentence kinds
1.1.1. Defining Sentence
What Is a Sentence? And what is sentence fragment?
e.g. When the judges announced the winner.
 Does this word group have a subject and a verb? [yes; judges, announced]
 Does this example express a complete thought? [no]
 Is this is a sentence or a sentence fragment. [sentence fragment]
Since the subordinating conjunction when introduces this word group, it is a dependent clause
and cannot stand alone.
 How can this sentence fragment be corrected? [When the judges announced the winner,
everyone applauded.]
This fragment can be corrected either by adding the independent clause everyone applauded to
complete the thought or by eliminating the subordinating conjunction When. [The judges
announced the winner.]

Therefore, a sentence is a word group that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses
a complete thought.

A thought is complete when it makes sense by itself.

A sentence should begin with a capital letter. The punctuation mark that follows a sentence
depends on the purpose of the sentence.

Sentences consist of two basic parts: subjects and predicates. The subject is a word or word
group that tells whom or what the sentence is about. The predicate is a word or word group that
tells something about the subject.
e.g. Dogs are loyal pets.
Everything you said is true.

1.1.2. Sentences Kinds

Depending on its purpose, a sentence can be classified as declarative, interrogative, imperative,
or exclamatory
1. A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period.
Example:
 The development of the microprocessor has revolutionized technology in many ways.
 Reading makes people well informed.
 John bought a nice car.

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2. Interrogative sentences are those which we use them to ask question. These sentences can be
presented in the form of Yes/No questions or WH-questions.
Examples of such sentences are:
 When did Mexico achieve independence from Spain?
 Have you ever seen a dragon fly?
3. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request or suggestion. Most imperative
sentences end with a period. A strong command ends with an exclamation point.
Example:
 Come here. [The understood subject is you.]
4) An exclamatory sentence shows excitement or expresses strong emotion and ends with an
exclamation point.
Example:
 How happy you look!
 What a surprise it is to see you here!
1.2. Sentence Types
Depending on its structure, a sentence can be classified as simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex. Writers should strive to use all four types of sentences because doing so
provides greater interest and enjoyment for the reader.
1. A simple Sentence consists of one independent clause with one verb and subject.
e.g. Bicycles are a great way to travel short distances. [simple sentence with a single subject]
Anna and Selam will sing in the talent show. [simple sentence with a compound subject]
Anna and Selam will sing and dance in the talent show. [simple sentence with a compound
subject and compound verb]
2. A compound Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined together. The
independent clauses can be joined together in one of three ways.
a) with a coordinating conjunction b) with a conjunctive adverb c) with a semicolon
A. With a coordinating conjunction
Independent clause; + coordinator + independent clause
E.g. Phil thoroughly enjoys playing chess, but he detests checkers.
Luxury cars are very expensive, yet they can be just as unreliable as cheaper cars.

List of coordinating conjunctives

and but or nor yet for so

B. With a conjunctive adverb

Independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, + independent clause
E.g. Maureen can play the violin like a virtuoso; however, she can’t stand classical music.
A diet high in cholesterol can be dangerous to your health; indeed, it can lead to high blood
pressure.

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List of conjunctive adverbs
accordingly besides consequently for example likewise meanwhile moreover
furthermore hence however in addition in contrast indeed instead
nevertheless nonetheless otherwise therefore thus on the other hand

C. With a semicolon
Independent clause; independent clause
E.g. My oldest sister is a teacher; my youngest is a lawyer.
Russia was the first country to put a man into space; the United States was second.

Exercise 1.
Write six compound sentences of your own- two each with a coordinating conjunction,
conjunctive adverb, and a semi-colon.

3. A complex Sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
The most important idea of the sentence is place in the independent clause and the least
important idea is placed in the dependent clause.
Examples:
Although winters in Colorado can be extremely cold, if you like to ski, it is the place to be.
Hawaii is a great place to vacation, because of its white sandy beaches and warm calm
waters, unless of course, one doesn’t like tropical environs.

Exercise 2
Write the following sentences into one complex sentence, using the subordinating conjunction,
subordinating conjunction, or conjunctive adverb in the parenthesis to join the clauses together.
Remember to use correct punctuation.
1. The price of gasoline went up forty cents a gallon. The Elliots decided to cancel their vacation
plans of driving to Florida. (since)
________________________________________________________________
2. Traveling to other countries can be fun and rewarding. Travelers should never carry too much
money as a safety precaution. They should use credit cards. (however, instead)
________________________________________________________________
3. Smokers can no longer smoke in government buildings in the United States. They also cannot
smoke in many restaurants and bars. (nor)
________________________________________________________________
4. Doctors tell people that drinking excessively could cause damage to the liver. Doctors also
inform us that drinking a small amount of wine is good for the heart. (on the other hand)
_________________________________________________________________
5. All religions preach that murder is a sin. Throughout history there have been countless killings
for the sake of religion. (but)
________________________________________________________________

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4. A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses. It is a combination of a compound sentence and complex sentence, i.e. a
complex sentence joined to another sentence with a coordinating conjunction or conjunctive
adverb. Compound-complex sentences can be difficult and confusing to punctuate. The
compound-complex part of the sentence is punctuated like a compound sentence; with a semi-
colon and comma (sentence 1), or with a comma before a coordinator that connects two clauses
(sentence 2). The complex part of the sentence is punctuated like a complex sentence; a comma
follows a dependent adverb clause, but no commas are used with noun clauses.
Examples:
1. That computers are a wonderful invention is obvious; however, much of the software available
for them is so complicated; they require an enormous amount of time and energy to master.
2. Allen always wanted to pursue a career in medicine, but because he lacked the financial
resources, he decided to become an engineer instead.

Exercise 3
Rewrite the following sentences into one compound-complex sentence. Be sure to use correct
punctuation.
1. Driving a sports car can be fun. It is very expensive. There is the high cost of maintenance and
the almost double premiums for insurance to contend with.
_________________________________________________________________
2. Reading is a favorite pastime for thousands of people. Not only can an avid reader learn a lot,
but also they can escape the realities of daily life. Reading a good novel can take you to faraway
places and introduce you to new experiences.
_________________________________________________________________
3. Television programs specifically made for children are good educational tools. Children can
learn many things, not only the three R s, but the marvelous wonders of the world. Social
customs, habits, and beliefs are also easily conveyed to children through TV.
_________________________________________________________________
4. There are many benefits from having a pet. Responsibility is learned if the child has to feed,
water, and watch out for illness or injury. Playing with a pet can provide many children with
hours of companionship and fun.
_________________________________________________________________
5. Learning to write in English can be extremely difficult. Additional rules have to be observed
when writing that are not used in speaking. Some of these rules include punctuation, spelling,
and use of complete sentences.
_________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 4
Classifying Sentences According to Structure
Classify each of the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
EXAMPLE
- H. J. (Henry Jackson) Lewis is generally regarded as the first African American political
cartoonist. simple

1. During the late 1800s, H.J. Lewis drew political cartoons for The Free man, which was the
first illustrated African American newspaper.

2. Through his cartoons Lewis frequently criticized the U.S. government’s racial policies;
however, he also produced nonpolitical ink drawings, sketches, and chalk plates.

3. If you examine the following self-portrait of Lewis, you can see evidence of his artistic
versatility, and you can get a sense of the atmosphere in which he worked.
4. Lewis had to overcome many difficulties to achieve success as an artist, and parts of his life
are shrouded in mystery.
5. Lewis was born into slavery in Mississippi, and he was blinded in one eye and badly burned
when he was a toddler.

6. As a young man he worked at various menial jobs until a Little Rock newspaper artist taught
him how to draw.
7. Lewis made sketches for archaeological studies in Arkansas, Mississippi, Tennessee, and
Louisiana in 1882 and 1883.

8. The Smithsonian Institution now has most of these sketches; they include drawings of
prehistoric Native American burial mounds.

9. Throughout his life, Lewis produced drawings for various publications.

10. Upon Lewis’s death in 1891, The Freeman, the newspaper that had made him famous,
praised his talent and mourned his loss.

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1.3. Faulty Sentences
1.3.1. Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that is capitalized and punctuated as a sentence but that
does not contain both a subject and a verb or does not express a complete thought.
Examples
FRAGMENT - Students representing sixty-one historically black universities and colleges.
SENTENCE- Students representing sixty-one historically black universities and colleges
competed.
FRAGMENT - Because the graduation ceremony was rescheduled for June 20.
SENTENCE- Because the graduation ceremony was rescheduled for June 20, my cousin Larry
could attend after all.

1.3.2. Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence is one in which independent clauses have been run together without
punctuation (a period, semicolon, or comma).
Example:
1. The concert seemed unending it lasted almost until midnight.
2. We got some gas then we headed off to Hawasa.

The above two run-on sentences can be corrected:

A. by adding full stop
1. The concert seemed unending. It lasted almost until midnight.
2. We got some gas. Then we headed off to Hawasa.
B. By adding a comma and a conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so). Sometimes, you have to
change the order of the words.
1. The concert seemed unending, for it lasted almost until midnight.
2. We got some gas, and then we headed off to Hawasa.
C. By turning one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause. To do this, you need to
add a subordinating conjunction where it fits in the sentence. This can usually be done in two
different ways: by rewording the clauses or by using different subordinating conjunctions.
Remember the list of subordinating conjunction you saw earlier in this lesson?
1. Since the concert lasted almost until midnight, it seemed unending.
1. The concert seemed unending because it lasted until almost midnight.
2. After we got some gas, we headed off to Hawasa.
2. We headed off to Hawasa after we got some gas.

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1.3.3. Comma Splices
A comma splice is actually a special type of run-on sentence in which a comma is used in place
of a semicolon to join two independent clauses without a conjunction. A comma splice can be
corrected by putting a semicolon in place of the comma or by adding a conjunction after the
comma.
Example:
A. Wrong: Henry lives across the street, he has been there for 25 years.
Correct: Henry lives across the street; he has been there for 25 years.
Henry lives across the street, and he has been there for 25 years.
B. Wrong: Mary heads the search committee, John is the recorder.
Correct: Mary heads the search committee; John is the recorder.
Mary heads the search committee, and John is the recorder.
C. Wrong: Sid gave demonstrations all summer long, he returned in the fall.
Correct: Sid gave demonstrations all summer long; he returned in the fall.
Sid gave demonstrations all summer long, but he returned in the fall.

Exercise 5
In each of the following numbered items, decide whether the group of words is a correctly
written sentence or sentences (S), a fragment (F), a run-on sentence (ROS), or a comma splice
(CS).
1. Dr. Anders left detailed care instructions for the patient. A personal friend of his.
2. The night before, someone from Publisher’s Clearinghouse had called. To tell me that I
would be receiving a prize package worth potentially millions of dollars.
3. I was so excited because unlike the other offers, this really sounded legitimate, it sounded
to me as though I might really win something this time.
4. I hastily opened the mailbox. Hoping to find the promised envelope.
5. There it was. The promised letter.
6. When I finally finished reading the entire mailing.
7. The officer responded to the call, he received it at 8:10 p.m.
8. Emily posted the last transaction it was time to close the books for the day.
9. Our new computer system is still not working properly.
10. Hanging over the doorway in the office next to the conference room.

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Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

1.3.4. Misplaced Modifiers

Place words, phrases, or clauses that describe nouns and pronouns as closely as possible to the
words they describe. Failure to do this often results in a misplaced modifier—and a sentence that
means something other than what was intended.

Words
For example, the words only, almost, and just should be placed as closely as possible to the word
described. The best place is right before the words they describe. The placement of the word
affects the meaning of the sentence.
 The customers only looked at two samples.
 The customers looked at only two samples.
In the first sentence, the customers “only looked” at the samples; they didn’t touch them. In the second
sentence, the customers looked at “only two,” not three or four, samples. The placement of only changes
the meaning.
Here’s an example with almost:
 Chad almost scored three touchdowns.
 Chad scored almost three touchdowns.
In the first version, Chad “almost scored” three times—he must have come close to the goal line three
times without actually crossing. In the second version, Chad scored “almost three” touchdowns—maybe
2.2 touchdowns. How many points are awarded for that?
Here’s how placing just can affect the meaning of a sentence:
 The Hill family just leases a car.
 The Hill family leases just a car.
In the first version, the Hill family “just leases” a car, so they don’t own or buy a car. In the second, they
lease “just a car,” not a truck or a van or any other vehicle.
WRONG
1. The veterinarian explained how to vaccinate hogs in the community center basement.
[Why would you want hogs in the community center?]
2. A big dog followed the old man that was barking loudly. [Why was the man barking?]
CORRECT
1. In the community center basement, the veterinarian explained how to vaccinate hogs.
1. The veterinarian in the community center basement explained how to vaccinate hogs.
2. A big dog that was barking loudly followed the old man.
2. Barking loudly, a big dog followed the old man.

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1.3.5. Dangling Modifiers
Words, phrases, or clauses that begin a sentence and are set off by commas sometimes mistakenly modify
the wrong noun or pronoun. These are called dangling modifiers. The following sentences contain
dangling modifiers. Pay close attention to how the sentences are rewritten to avoid the problem.
WRONG
1. Flat and useless, Jason removed the bicycle tire. [Why was Jason flat?]
2. Attached to an old stump, Janette saw a No Fishing sign. [Why was Janette attached to an
old stump?]
3. While cleaning up after dinner, the phone rang. [Don’t you wish you had a phone that
cleaned up after dinner?]
CORRECT
1. Jason removed the flat and useless bicycle tire. Flat and useless, the bicycle tire was
removed by Jason.
2. Janette saw a No Fishing sign attached to an old stump. The No Fishing sign attached to
an old stump caught Janette’s attention.
3. While I was cleaning up after dinner, the phone rang. While cleaning up after dinner, I
heard the phone ring. The phone rang while I was cleaning up after dinner.

Exercise 6
Choose the correctly written sentence from each of the following sets.
1. a. I like olives and pimentoes boiled in oil.
b. Boiled in oil, I like olives and pimentos.
2. a. While speeding along a country road, two deer dashed across the road in front of our car.
b. Two deer dashed across the road in front of our car as we were speeding along a country road.
3. a. At the age of four, my grandmother taught me to read.
b. When I was four, my grandmother taught me to read.
4. a. We heard about the bank robbers who were arrested on the evening news.
b. We heard on the evening news about the bank robbers who were arrested.

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1.3.6. Faulty Parallelism
Parallelism is achieved when two or more equivalent ideas in a sentence that have the same
purpose and form are joined together with the use of coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so) and correlative conjunctions (both and, not only but also, neither nor, either
or).
If a list of items begins with a noun, then all the other items in the list should be nouns.
Similarly, if the first item in the list is a dependent clause (or adjective, adverb, verb phrase, etc),
then all the other items in the list should be independent clauses (or adjectives, adverbs, verb
phrase, etc.).
Example:
A. - My roommate is miserly, sloppy, and a bore. Not Parallel
- My roommate is miserly, sloppy, and boring. My roommate is a miser, a slob, and a bore.
Parallel
B. - My vacuum cleaner squealed loudly, shook violently, and dust filled the air. Not Parallel
- My vacuum cleaner squealed loudly, shook violently, and filled the air with dust.Parallel
C. - We soon discovered that our plane tickets were invalid, that our cruise reservations had
never been made, and our travel agent left town. Not Parallel
- We soon discovered that our plane tickets were invalid, that our cruise reservations had
never been made, and that our travel agent had left town. Parallel

Exercise 7
1. Which version has a parallel structure?
a. We write for a variety of purposes: in expressing our feelings, to convey information, to
persuade, or to give pleasure.
b. We write for a variety of purposes: to express our feelings, convey information,
persuasion, or giving pleasure.
c. We write for a variety of purposes: an expression of our feelings, conveying information,
persuade, or to give pleasure.
d. We write for a variety of purposes: to express our feelings, to convey information, to
persuade, or to give pleasure.
2. Which version has a parallel structure?
a. He is a man of many talents. He repairs small machines, he cooks gourmet meals, and
you should see his lilies and orchids.
b. He is a man of many talents. There’s a talent for repairing small machines, he cooks
gourmet meals, and then there are the lilies and orchids.
c. He is a man of many talents. He repairs small machines, he cooks gourmet meals, and he
grows lilies and orchids.
d. He is a man of many talents: repairing small machines, cooking gourmet meals, and he
grows lilies and orchids.

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Exercise 8Exercise 5
Revising Sentences by Correcting Faulty Parallelism
Some of the following sentences are unclear because they lack parallel structure. Revise each
faulty sentence by putting parallel ideas into the same grammatical form. Add, delete, move, and
replace words and punctuation as necessary. If a sentence is already in parallel form, write C for
correct.

Example - We are studying geography, history, and learning about famous people.
- We are studying geography, history, and famous people.

1. Kwame Nkrumah is known not only as the first prime minister of the African country
Ghana but also because he led the country to independence from British rule.
2. Ghana interests many because it was called the Gold Coast by the British and then was
the first of Britain’s colonies to achieve independence after World War II.
3. Nkrumah’s educational influences included studying in the United States and that he was
interested in Pan-Africanism.
4. After his study in the United States and attending a Pan-African conference in Great
Britain in 1945, Nkrumah returned to the Gold Coast in 1947.
5. During the late 1940s, Nkrumah became the leader of the Gold Coast nationalist
movement, not only through his organizing ability but also because he had great
determination.
6. Nkrumah’s goals were to gather wide popular support for the nationalist movement and
gaining self-government apart from the British.
7. Nkrumah established the Convention People’s Party, or CPP, in 1949 and led
demonstrations and strikes in support of the cause.
8. Although the British jailed him, Nkrumah and the CPP were successful both popularly
and as far as becoming major political forces.
9. Because of this pressure, the British both agreed to allow national elections and to grant a
self-governing constitution in 1951.
10. Nkrumah’s leadership led to CPP victory in the elections and that Britain granted the
Gold Coast full self-government in 1957.

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1.3.7. Agreement Errors
A. Subject and Verb
- Singular subjects take singular verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs.
- The gerund or infinitive serves as a singular simple subject and takes singular verb.
E.g. Restoring old paintings occupies much of her spare time.
[The singular verb occupies is used because the gerund Restoring, not the noun paintings, is
the subject of the verb.]
To illustrate books for young readers requires a vivid imagination. [The singular verb
requires is used because the infinitive To illustrate, not the noun books or readers, is the
subject of the verb.]
- A phrase that begins with a compound preposition such as, along with, as well as, in addition
to, or together with. Such a phrase does not affect the number of a subject.
E.g. The teacher along with his students was invited in the party.
- Some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be singular or plural
depending on how they are used.
(1) The following indefinite pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody,
someone, and something.
Examples
Is anyone in the audience a medical doctor?
Each of the boys does his own cooking.
Either of these videos is suitable for a four-year-old.
(2) The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and several.
Examples
Both of the universities offer degrees in forestry.
Few on the committee ever miss a meeting.
Several of the students have transferred.
(3) The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some may be singular or
plural, depending on their meaning in a sentence. These pronouns are singular when they
refer to singular words. They are plural when they refer to plural words.
Examples
All of the workout seems simple. [All refers to the singular noun workout.]
All of the exercises seem simple. [All refers to the plural noun exercises.]
Is any of the salad left? [Any refers to the singular noun salad.]
Are any of the vegetables left? [Any refers to the plural noun vegetables.]
More of the Senate was in favor of the highway funding bill than was against it. [More
refers to the singular noun Senate.]
More of the senators were in favor of the highway funding bill than were against it.
[More refers to the plural noun senators.]

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- Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb.
- Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.
Examples
A jacket or a sweater is warm enough for tonight.
Neither the coach nor the trainer knows the umpire.
- When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees
with the subject nearer the verb.
Examples
Either the musicians or the singer is off-key. [The singular subject, singer, is nearer the
verb.]
Either the singer or the musicians are off-key. [The plural subject, musicians, is nearer
the verb.]
- A collective noun may be either singular or plural, depending on its meaning in a
sentence.
The singular form of a collective noun names a group of persons or things.
Common Collective Nouns
army club flock squadron
assembly committee group staff
audience crowd herd swarm
band family jury team
class fleet public troop
A collective noun is:
• singular when it refers to the group as a unit
e.g. The class meets Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. [The class meets as a unit.]
• plural when it refers to the individual members or parts of the group
e.g. The class usually bring their calculators with them. [The members of the class bring
separate calculators.]
- Many nouns ending in –ics, such as acoustics, athletics, ethics, politics, and tactics, may
be either singular or plural in meaning.
Generally, such a noun takes a singular verb when it names a science, a system, or a skill. It
takes a plural verb when it names qualities, operations, or activities.
Examples
Who said, “Politics is the art of the possible”?
Are your politics like those of your parents?
- Even when plural in form, the titles of creative works (such as books, songs, movies, or
paintings) and the names of countries, cities, and organizations generally take singular
verbs.
e.g. The Netherlands borders the North Sea and exports various chemical products.

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 B. Pronoun and Antecedent
A pronoun usually refers to a noun or another pronoun. The word to which a pronoun refers is
called its antecedent.
- A pronoun should agree in number, gender, and person with its antecedent.
e.g. Ethiopian athletes usually wear their national flag when they win a race.

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 Unit Two

Writing Effective Paragraphs

A paragraph is a series of sentences all relating to the same topic or central idea. The aim of all
paragraphs is to communicate to the reader that idea clearly and effectively. There is no hard and
fast rule about the length of a paragraph; it will depend on the topic and what the writer wants to
say. The paragraph should be long enough to develop the idea expressed in the topic sentence
sufficiently. It should do what it sets out to do in the topic sentence. If the topic sentence states
that you will be explaining how to make pizza, don t forget the steps about turning on the oven
and at which temperature and how long the pizza should cook. Regardless of the length, the
paragraph must contain only one idea. Any irrelevant sentences must be eliminated from the
paragraph to ensure that it maintains its unity.

2.1. Structure of a Paragraph

There are three parts to a paragraph: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a conclusion.
Think of a paragraph as an Oreo cookie. The first and last sentences are like the top and bottom
chocolate cookie of an Oreo; they are general statements about the topic, which tie the paragraph
together. The middle sentences are like the white creamy filling, which contains information,
facts, opinions, and examples that support or develop the topic sentence.
1. Topic Sentence
There are differences between a topic sentence and a title. The title is above the paragraph and
expands the topic. It should indicate what the essay is about, provoke interest, and be brief. The
topic sentence is usually the first sentence in the paragraph and limits the topic of the paragraph.
A title is usually not a complete sentence. The topic sentence is always a complete thought or
sentence. Most words in the title are capitalized. Only the first word and proper nouns are
capitalized in the topic sentence.
The most important sentence of a paragraph is the topic sentence because it contains the main
ideas of the paragraph. There are three elements in a topic sentence: the topic, a controlling idea,
and the point of view of the writer.

A. Topic
The topic is the subject, what is being written about in the paragraph. The main idea expressed in the
topic sentence should not be too general or too specific. If it is too general, it will be difficult to develop it
adequately in a single paragraph. If it is too specific, there will be nothing left to say to develop the idea
in the paragraph.
Look at the following topic sentences.
Everyone can benefit from exercise.
This topic sentence is too general. There are many different kinds of exercise and different kinds of
exercise have different benefits. Not all of them can be developed within one paragraph.

17
Doing aerobics for thirty minutes a day will strengthen a person s cardio- vascular system by
twenty five percent.
This topic sentence is too specific. There is nothing else that can be said to support this statement in the
remainder of the paragraph.
There are three reasons why I exercise everyday.
This sentence is an adequate topic sentence. It limits the discussion of the paragraph to only discussing
the reasons that the writer exercises. Telling what those three reasons are and what benefits the writer
gains from exercise can be expanded upon in the paragraph.
B. Controlling idea
The controlling idea limits the topic of the paragraph to one definite idea or one aspect of the topic that
represents a particular idea, feeling, or opinion. The controlling idea must not be too broad, it must be
specific enough for the subject to be discussed within one paragraph.

Look at these three topic sentences. Each has same topic, but contain different controlling ideas.
Topic
The Grand Canyon is a favorite vacation spot for travelers worldwide.
(controlling idea: vacation spot)
The Grand Canyon is noted for it awe inspiring panorama.
(controlling idea: panorama)
The Grand Canyon is an ideal area to view the geologic history of the earth.
(controlling idea: geologic history)
Topic
The television is a major source of home entertainment.
(controlling idea: home entertainment)
The television is an effective educational tool.
(controlling idea: educational tool)
The television has become smaller since its initial invention.
(controlling idea: become smaller)
A divided topic sentence is useful in ensuring the sentence has a controlling idea. In a divided topic
sentence, the writer specifies or explains the divisions of the topic.
Look at the following sentences that illustrate a divided topic sentence.
There are three major professional sports in America.
Five essential ingredients are required in learning a foreign language.
To become a successful, writer one needs four basic skills. All three of the topic sentences above clearly
limit what will be discussed in the paragraph (three sports, five ingredients, and four skills).

C. Point of view
A good topic sentence also expresses the point of view of the writer. It may contain the opinion or attitude
of the writer. In the topic sentence
Digital cameras make photography easy and fun.
The writer’s point of view is easily determined- it’s easy and fun.

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Compare with Steven King has written many books.

In this statement the writer s opinion of the works of Steven King is not evident, nor is there any
indication of whether being such a prolific writer is good or bad.
Exercise 2.1
Look at the following topic sentences and decide whether they are good or lacking. Put an X in the space
if it is a good topic sentence, a G or S if it is too general or specific, or a C if it lacks a controlling idea.
_____ The greatest boxer of all time was Mohammed Ali.
_____ Jogging is good exercise.
_____ Computers have changed the world.
_____ Bananas are the best fruit because they contain all the essential vitamins needed for a healthy
body.
_____ Using cell phones while driving can be a hazard.
_____ Religion is a crutch.
_____ The most challenging board game ever invented is chess.
_____ AIDS kills people every day.
_____ Music soothes the soul.
_____ Lawyers are too plentiful in the United States.

Exercise 2.2
Rewrite the following general statements and make them more specific and suitable as topic sentences.

1. Ethiopian food is healthy and easy to prepare.

2. The United States government is over burdened with citizen’s complaints.
3. Natural disasters create havoc for everyone.
4. The extinction of species of life on earth will have a profound effect on future generations.
5. Fairy tales are beneficial to children.

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Exercise 2.3
Identify the topic and controlling idea of the following topic sentences.
1. Children’s educational programs on TV are superior to cartoons for young minds.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
2. Racial discrimination in the work place is a waste of human resources.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
3. The exploration of space needlessly expends resources that could be put to better use elsewhere.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
4. Hobbies provide people with many benefits.
Topic:__________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
5. Learning a foreign language is also about learning the culture of that country.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
6. Becoming a doctor requires skills other than just medical knowledge.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
7. The time I spent in the Peace Corps was a horrendous experience.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
8. Driving in Ethiopia presents foreign drivers with many challenges.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
9. A computer is a must for today’s college students.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________
10. Teaching children the basics of fire prevention at home is fast and easy.
Topic: __________________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________________

2. Supporting sentences
The supporting sentences are sentences that further explain and support the topic sentence. The topic
sentence is usually fairly general. The supporting sentences that follow it should be more specific and
develop the idea expressed in the topic sentence. Supporting sentences that are vague merely restate the
topic sentence.

There are several methods that can be employed to make the supporting sentences more specific.

i. Using details, facts, statistics, examples, opinions, research results, personal experience, or anecdotes.

20
For example:
 Addis Ababa is a big city. (no statistics, just a broad statement)
 Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia, has a population of over four million people.
ii. Using exact names of things rather than writing about them in general terms.
For example:
 He is a doctor. (a very general statement)
 He is a pediatrician who has worked at City Hospital for the last 15 years. (a very specific
statement)
iii. Using concrete words that allow the reader to imagine the topic being written about in greater detail,
and not just in general or abstract terms.
For example:
 Mr. Thompson enjoys life.
 Mr. Thompson is almost always in a good mood, most often has a smile on his face, is quick to
laugh, and always sees the positive, even in terrible situations.

3. Concluding sentence

The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. Single paragraph compositions should have
a concluding sentence; however, it may not be necessary all the time for a multi-paragraph composition.
The function of the concluding sentence is to signal the end of the paragraph. Concluding sentences can
either be a restatement of the topic sentence, a summary of the supporting sentences, or contain a final
comment about the topic. The concluding sentence in a paragraph should be a general statement that
relates to the idea expressed in the topic sentence, and not another fact or detail of support. If restating the
topic sentence, it should be expressed in different words, not an exact copy of the topic sentence.

Example:

 I love the color red.

 I like to live the life in a strong way, so I think I will always admire the color red.

Many words or phrases can be used to signal the end of the paragraph in the concluding sentence. Here
are just a few (Note that these examples require a comma following them):

Finally, In conclusion, In summary, Therefore, Thus,

As a result, Indeed, In brief, In short,

Other phrases (which do not require commas) include:

 We can see that . . .

 It is clear that. . .
 These examples show that. . .
 There can be no doubt that. . .
 The evidence suggest that. . .

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Exercise 2.4

Read the sentences below and number the proper order for the sentences in a paragraph.

____ Temperatures on the continent frequently drop below 100” below zero.
____ It is no wonder that this harsh environment has no permanent residents.
____ Antarctica, the continent at the South Pole, is one of the coldest spots on earth.
____ The continent receives no sunlight for several months out of the year.
____ More than 95% of the land surface is covered by a tightly packed ice cap.
____ The sunlight it does receive is so slanted because of the tilt of the planets axis, that the warmth for
the sunlight is negligible.
____ The land is covered by thousands of feet of snow and ice.

2.2. Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

A well-written paragraph has four characteristics: unity, cohesion, coherence, and completeness.
1. Unity
Unity means discussing only one idea in the paragraph, the idea presented in the topic sentence. If a
sentence in the paragraph does not relate to the topic sentence, it is irrelevant and should be deleted. For
example, if the topic sentence states that the paragraph is about the advantages of CD s over cassette
tapes, talk only about advantages not disadvantages. Discussing the disadvantages does not support the
topic sentence and should not be included in the paragraph. Lack of unity may also occur if the writer
adds too much to the topic.
Exercise
Read the following topic sentences. Identify the sentence that does not support the topic sentences.
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
b. Online courses have been available since the 1990s.
c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live far away from the campus.
2. Childhood diabetes has many possible causes.
a. Obesity is a major cause of diabetes.
b. Children who eat too much sugar can get diabetes.
c. Children with diabetes need constant medical care.
3. The best way to reduce traffic in our city is to build a metro subway system.
a. Pollution is very bad in our city.
b. Widening the freeways has not solved the problems of traffic congestion.
c. Metro subway system would encourage people to take public transportation to work.

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 2. Cohesion
One characteristic of a good paragraph is cohesion; sentences that stick together in supporting the topic
sentence. There are various devices that can be used to connect sentences together to ensure cohesion.
These are pronouns, use of synonyms, and transitional words.
 Transition words
Transition words are words that link ideas or sentences together and show the relationship between them.
They guide the reader through the passage by letting him or her know which direction the text is going.
Coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, or prepositions are frequently used linking words.
Transition words can be identified into groups, each group serving a different function in the way in
which it combines sentences or phrases together. Look carefully at the lists below.
 Transitions which indicate additions, repetitions, or intensification:
Also, in addition, besides, too, another, further, furthermore, in other words, moreover, indeed,
in fact, finally, first, second, after all, once again, to repeat, and so on, again, to sum up, to
conclude, usually, habitually, anymore, including, nevertheless, to put it another way, as a matter
of fact, etc
 Transitions which indicate comparisons, contrasts, or contradictions:
Similarly, likewise, by comparison, in the like manner, as well as, as, as if, unlike, however,
though, regardless, on the other hand, in spite of, despite , but, yet, whereas , even though, even
when, rather than, instead, instead of, on the contrary, nevertheless, in fact nonetheless, then, again ,
to put it another way, either or neither nor, etc
 Transitions which indicate a time or space relationship:
Before, now, next, after that, in time, later, following, after so much time, finally, earlier, at first
(last) then, just then, until, soon, the next day (night), while, meanwhile, beside, between, beyond
across, over, at, from, to, into, outside, inside, eventually, since, ever since, even when, etc.
 Transitions which indicate a cause or result:
Because, for, therefore, thus, so, as a result, consequently, that (this) reason, etc.
 Synonyms
Another cohesive devise, synonyms, are used to enable the writer to add variety to his writing by
preventing the repetition of nouns or phrases, which may make the passage boring and uninteresting to
read. As with the other listed cohesive devices, synonyms require an antecedent before their use.
 Pronouns
Personal Pronouns (i.e. first, second and third person pronouns) are words that refer back to and substitute
for nouns (called antecedents). Before a pronoun can be used in a text, an antecedent must precede it, so
the pronoun has something to refer back to. Without the use of pronouns, a sentence may become
awkward to read and in some cases may not seem to relate to each other.
Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) are also tools that can be used to connect sentences
together. As with personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns require an antecedent (a previously
mentioned noun) before their use.

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 3. Coherence
A paragraph must also have coherence. This means that the supporting details are organized so that
information that goes together appears together.
Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the supporting information in a paragraph
coherently.
 Chronological
Writer use chronological order to present information based on time. This strategy is usually important to
narrate stories.
 Spatial
This is a typical strategy in descriptive writing. The writer uses space as his/her reference to order
supporting sentences.
 Emphatic
Emphatic or importance of things is used especially when a writer wants to write about the process of
doing something.

Exercise
In which strategy is the following paragraph organized?
When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you
pass the signs, you will drive over a hill. The airport is on the other side of the hill. On your right,
you will see the international terminal. This terminal is two stories tall. The front is all glass. On
the left, you will see the domestic terminal…

4. Completeness
Completeness is similar to unity, except that instead of including sentences that are irrelevant,
completeness is ensuring that all the necessary supporting sentences are included to fully explain and
support the topic. For example, if a topic sentence states that three things are needed obtain a visa and
only two are mentioned in the supporting sentences, the paragraph is incomplete. All three items must be
mentioned for the paragraph to have completeness. Another example, if a topic sentence promises to list
the steps needed to change a flat tire, but neglects to mention that the car must be jacked up before taking
off the wheels, the paragraph is incomplete. All the steps needed to change a tire must be included in the
paragraph to ensure completeness.

2.3. Basic Types of Paragraph

There are several kinds of paragraphs: Exposition, Narrative, Descriptive and Argumentative. Each kind
of paragraph has a different purpose and different method of organization.
2.3.1. Exposition
This type of paragraph explains something or provides instruction. It could also describe a process and
move the reader step by step through a method. This type of paragraph often requires research, but it’s
possible that the writer is able to rely on his or her own knowledge and expertise.

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2.3.2. Narrative
A narrative paragraph tells a story and its purpose is to provide information about an event. In a narrative
paragraph, events are related to the reader in the correct chronological order as they happened. A narrative
paragraph is used when writing about such things as: a vacation trip taken to Africa, your first day in a
foreign country, man s journey into space, or the events leading to the end of slavery in America. When
telling a story elements that should be included are the chain of events of the story, the characters or
people involved, when and where the event occurred, and possibly the theme or moral of the story.
Example
My girlfriend and I went on vacation to Hawaii about a year ago. We spent a week there and had a
great time. We stayed at a very nice hotel right on the beach in Honolulu. We spent a lot of time on
the beach, of course, swimming, wading, walking, and soaking in the sun. At night we always went
out to a fine restaurant for a romantic dinner on the beach. We even took in a show once. One day we
went snorkeling. That was fantastic! The numbers and varieties of brightly colored fish we saw were
just amazing. I thought about trying my hand at surfing and parasailing, but I chickened out. On
another day, we did the typical vacationer s tour; we went to a Marine Museum, a traditional Hawaii
market, and The Arizona War Memorial. One night we went to a luau. The food at the luau was
delicious, as were the tropical drinks. The organizers of the luau taught all the women how to do the
hula; all the men sat back, watched the dancing, and drank Mai Tai s. The luau was fun, but I thought
it was over-crowed. There were a least 150 people there. In spite of the crowds, Hawaii certain is a
vacation paradise.
Exercise 6.1
1. Write your own narrative paragraph.

2.3.3. Descriptive
When one wants to describe the way something looks like in a physical sense a descriptive paragraph is
used. A descriptive paragraph would be used for such things as describing the physical appearance of
your favorite uncle, the layout of the library at a school, the awesome grandeur of the Pyramids, or the
stunning beauty of the Mona Lisa. The organizational flow of sentences in the paragraph should be based
on some logical principle and could vary based on the writer’s style or intent. For example, if describing a
person, one may start the description from the head and work down to the feet, or vise versa. Additional
supporting sentences may include information about the person’s eye color, hair color and style, height,
weight, physical stature, and distinguishing marks. If describing a room, one could describe from left to
right or front to back or from the center outward. Items that may be included in the supporting sentences
may include the color of the walls, the size of the room, the furniture or decor of the room, the location of
the furniture, windows or doors in the room. If describing the beauty of a famous landmark, one could
start with the landmark itself and expand outward to include the landscape around it, the sky above, and
the horizon beyond. Supporting sentences may include information on the size, shape, and color of the
landmark, its location, the kinds of vegetation in the vicinity, and the immediate or distant geologic
characteristics of the landscape.
Example:
Kangaroos are strange and amazing animals. There are three species of kangaroos and they can
weigh between forty and two hundred pounds (18 to 95 kg) and range in height between three and
nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters). A kangaroo has two large hind legs (with four toes) and a long, powerful,
tapered tail that is used for balance when hopping and leaping. Kangaroos can walk and stand

25
 upright and they move about by hopping on their hind legs. Their front legs are short and small, with
hands and five unequal digits (fingers) similar to a human s. The digits are used for grasping objects
and also have sharp claws that are used for fighting. Kangaroos have long pointed ears and a long
and well-defined muzzle, with distinctive black and white patches on both sides of the muzzle. Their
head resembles that of a dear. The fur of the kangaroos is soft and woolly and may have stripes on
the head, back, or upper limbs. Depending on the species, the color of the fur can be reddish brown,
grayish brown, or chocolate brown. One distinguishing feature of kangaroos is that the females have
a pouch in which the babies reside until mature. To see these amazing animals up close one has to
travel to Australia, as that is the only place kangaroos can be indigenously found.
Exercise
Select one of the topics below and write a descriptive paragraph about it.
 Your bedroom
 Your college campus
 A friend
 A TV
 An elephant
 Your own idea

2.3.4. Argumentative

In a argumentative paragraph the writer attempts to persuade others to his particular point of view or tries
to convince others to do something. The writer may use facts and figures, emotional appeal, or intellectual
arguments to influence the reader’s opinion.

Exercise
1. The following sets of sentences are not in correct time order. Number the sentences 1-10 in the correct
order.
- Our vacation in Florida last month was a real disaster.
- On the way to the airport, our taxi broke down.
- We got a new hotel room after arguing with the manager.
- When we arrived back home, we found that water had flooded our house because of a broken
pipe. .
- All in all, we should have stayed at home. .
- We had to wait several hours for the next flight.
- When we arrived at our hotel in Miami, our reservations had been canceled because we were late.
- It rained the entire week, so we couldn't go to the beach at all. .
- We missed our plane to Miami. .
- The second day we were in Miami, someone broke into our hotel room and stole all of our
clothes.

26
2.4. Techniques of Paragraph Development
2.4.1. Definition
Definition could be simple or extended.
Example:
 If we look in a dictionary for the word ‘school’, we may find:
- School an institution where children are educated.
- Botany the science of the structure of plants.
 More formally in writing, we would put:
- A school is an institute where children are educated. (Simple)
- Botany is the science of the structure of plants. (Simple)
- Psychology may be defined as the branch of biology science which studies the
phenomena of conscious life and behavior. (Extended)
2.4.2. Exemplification
It is often useful in definitions to give examples: this action is known as exemplification (or
exemplifying).
Exemplifications are often introduced by for example or e.g.
- Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, its structure, sound
systems and meaning systems.
There are different ways of exemplifying,
e.g.
- Geology may be defined as the science of the earth’s history as shown by its crust, rocks, etc.
- Geography may be defined as the science of the earth’s surface. It is concerned with a
number of features, particularly physical, climate and products.

2.4.3. Classification
When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc, we are classifying those items. The
classification is normally made according to a criterion or several criteria.
Exercise
Write a classification paragraph based on the following diagram.

Fig. Classification of Drinks

27
 2.4.4. Cause and Effect
Causes can have multiple effects, and can be a circular relationship between cause and effect e.g.
unemployment
Very little money few opportunities or amenities alcohol illness ….?

Exercise
Write a paragraph describing some of the causes and effects of poverty in Ethiopia or in Africa. In your
description include a definition of poverty.

2.4.5. Compare and Contrast

In most academic writings, we often need to compare and contrast things. Similarities and differences are
often noted when classifying. The language of comparison and contrast is frequently needed when
studying tables and other statistical information.

Exercise
Write a compare and contrast paragraph using one of the topics below.
 City and country living
 A sports car and a luxury car
 Audio-tapes and CD s
 Two countries Your mother and father
 Typewriters and computers
 Your own idea

28
 2.4.6. Process
We use this technique of writing when we want to describe the procedures of doing something or how
something works.
Example
How to make Tacos
Making tacos, a Mexican dish, is fast and easy. There are six basic ingredients: corn tortillas, ground
beef (hamburger meat), lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and shredded cheese. For a serving of six, use
these amounts of ingredients: six uncooked corn tortillas, one half pound of ground beef, one quarter
head of lettuce, one large tomato, one medium sized onion, and four ounces of shredded Cheddar
cheese. First, dice the lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and shred the cheese and put them into separate
bowls. Second, brown the ground beef in a frying pan, being sure to mash the beef into small bits.
Season the beef with salt and pepper to taste. Then, put in six to eight tablespoons of cooking oil in
another small frying pan and cook the tortillas over medium to high heat. To make soft tacos, cook
the tortillas for 30 seconds on one side and then turn over and cook the other side for 30 seconds.
After cooking the tortillas, place the cooked tortilla on a paper towel to remove the excess grease. To
make the taco, take the soft tortilla and fold it in haft, spoon into the tortilla shell a tablespoon or so
of the cooked ground beef. On top of this add small equal amounts of cheese, lettuce, tomatoes, and
onions. The taco is now ready eat, just pick it up with your hands and chow down (no spoons or forks
are required). Keep in mind that the ingredients have a tendency to fall out of the taco when eating,
so eat carefully. The debris that falls on the plate can be eaten later with a fork, or if keeping with
custom, just use your fingers. Some people like to add a little zest to their tacos by adding a dash or
two of hot taco sauce and a dab of sour cream or guacamole. To Tacos make a fast, easy, and
delicious meal, so add them to your menu to add variety to your dining experience.

2.4.7. Narration
This is usually in the form of narrative; an account or description of events in the past which entails
following a time sequence or chronological order (i.e. earliest first). Verb forms commonly used are the
simple past active (e.g. it organized), simple past passive (e.g. it was created) and past perfect active (it
had created).

2.4.8. Description
In academic writing, physical description may occur in a number of disciplines or subjects. A description
of people, family relationships, occupation and institutions might occur in social or physical anthropology
or sociology. A description of apparatus and equipment might occur in the various sciences.
For nearly all these descriptions present simple active verb forms (e.g. she wears) and present simple
passive verb form (e.g. it is described) are commonly used.

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 Unit Three
Writing Effective Essay
An essay is a piece of writing that has more than one paragraph. It is divided into three parts: a
beginning, a middle, and an end. The beginning is called the introduction, the middle is called
the body, and the end is called the conclusion. The introduction and the conclusion are usually
one paragraph each. The body may have from one to an unlimited number of paragraphs.

ESSAY OUTLINE
I. Introductory Paragraph Introductory Paragraph
Thesis statement (General statements)
II. Body Paragraph 1
A. Topic sentence
B. Main supporting sentence
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
C. Main supporting sentence
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
D. Main supporting sentence
Supporting detail
(Concluding sentence)
III. Body Paragraph 2
A. Topic sentence
B. Main supporting sentence Body Paragraphs
Supporting detail
C. Main supporting sentence
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
D. Main supporting sentence
Supporting detail
(Concluding sentence)
IV. Body Paragraph 3
A. Topic sentence
B. Supporting detail
C. Supporting detail
D. Supporting detail
(Concluding sentence)
V. Concluding Paragraph Concluding Paragraph
Concluding sentence(s)
Final thoughts
Fig.1 - Outline of an Essay

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1. Introductory Paragraph
The introduction is the first paragraph of the essay. It introduces the topic of the essay and
arouses the reader's interest. The topic of the essay is contained in the thesis statement. The
thesis statement is the most important sentence in an essay, just as the topic sentence is the most
important sentence in a paragraph. The thesis statement is similar to the topic sentence and
serves the same function in an essay as the topic sentences does for the paragraph. It tells what
the essay is about, just as the topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about. The
thesis statement is the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.

The thesis statement introduces the main idea of the essay.

• It states the specific topic of the essay.

• It may list the subtopics of the main topic.
• It may also mention the method of organization.
• It is the last sentence of the introduction.

2. Body Paragraph

The body of the essay is made up of one or more paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs has a
topic sentence, supporting sentences, and sometimes a concluding sentence. Each of the body
paragraphs supports the thesis statement.

Example:
Thesis statement
• Personal computers have especially revolutionized communication and business practices
in the past twenty years.
Topic sentences (for body paragraph)
• Perhaps the most important effect of personal computers has been to expand our ability to
communicate with the outside world.
• Besides improving communication, personal computers have made it possible to do
business from home.

Exercise
For the thesis statements below, write topic sentences for supporting body paragraphs.
1. Young people who live at home have several advantages.
a.
b.
c.
2. Owning a car is a necessity for several reasons.
a.
b.
c.

31
3. Women are superior to men in two ways.
a.
b.
Narration Model Essay
Earthquake!
October 17, 1989, was a day that I will never forget. It was the day I experienced my first
earthquake. I had just gotten home from school and was lying on the living room sofa watching
the news on TV. My little brother was in his room playing, and my older sister was in the kitchen
preparing our dinner. Our parents were still at work.
At exactly 5:04 P.M., the earthquake struck. Our apartment started shaking violently as if it
were a small wooden boat being tossed by giant waves in the ocean. At first, none of us realized
what was happening. Then my sister yelled, "Earthquake! Get under something!" I was too
stunned' to move, but the shaking was so strong that I soon fell off the sofa onto the floor. I half
rolled, half crawled across the floor to the dining table and got under it. My sister was sitting on
the floor in the kitchen, holding her arms over her head to protect it from falling dishes. She
yelled at my little brother to get under his desk, but he wanted to be near us. He tried to get out of
his room, but he kept falling down. The earthquake lasted less than a minute, but it seemed like a
year to us.
At last, the shaking stopped. For a minute or two, we were too scared to move. Then my
sister and I cautiously got up and went to help our little brother, who was crying. As soon as he
saw us, he began to calm down. There was no electricity, so I looked for my transistor radio and
turned it on. Unfortunately, it didn't work because the batteries were to o old. Next, we checked
the apartment for damage, but we didn't find any. We felt very lucky, for nothing was broken and
no one was hurt. After a while, we started worrying about our parents. I tried to call them at
work, but the phone lines were busy
Two hours later, our parents finally arrived home. They were unhurt, but they had had to
walk home because the electric streetcars were not working. We were so happy to see them!
Our first earthquake was an experience that none of us will ever forget, but it taught us a lesson,
too. Now we keep emergency supplies such as fresh batteries for my radio available, and we
have an emergency plan for communication with one another.

An outline of the essay would look like this:

I. Introduction: Before the earthquake
II. Body
A. During the earthquake
B. After the earthquake
C. Two hours after the earthquake
III. Conclusion

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3. Concluding Paragraph

The conclusion is the last paragraph of the essay. It does three things:
• It signals the end of the essay.
• It summarizes the main points.
• It leaves the reader with the writer's final thoughts on the subject.

Just as the introductory paragraph has two parts, the general statements and the thesis statement,
the concluding paragraph has two parts, the concluding sentences and the final thoughts.

Concluding Sentence(s)

The first part of the concluding paragraph summarizes the main points or repeats the thesis
statement in different words. This may require one or more than one sentence. The first sentence
of a concluding paragraph sometimes, but not always, begins with a conclusion transition signal,
such as: ‘In briefer’, ‘In short’. It is not always necessary to use a conclusion signal, and you
should avoid the over used phrases ‘In conclusion’ and ‘In summary’.

Examples
Thesis statement
Personal computers have especially revolutionized communication and business practices in the
past twenty years.
Concluding sentences
In brief, the computer age has arrived, and it is changing our lives. Computers have made
communicating and doing business faster and more convenient, and they have greatly increased
our access to information.

Exercise
Read the following thesis statements. Write a concluding sentence based on the information in each thesis
statement.
1. Drunk drivers are the greatest danger on our country's roads.
Therefore, people shouldn’t drink and drive.__________________
2. There are several disadvantages to owning a big car.
In brief, ________________________
3. Smoking in restaurants should be banned because it clouds the air, it smells bad, and it
can ruin customers' appetites.
It is clear that ________________________________
4. Eating in a restaurant is better than eating in a fast-food place because the atmosphere is
more pleasant, the food is more delicious, and the food is served to you at your table.

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