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AS Level Physics
7. Waves
Notes written by: Adhulan Rajkamal
7.1 Progressive waves
●​ Wave motion → Transfer energy

●​ Sources of waves → Vibrating objects

●​ Progressive waves → Waves which transfer energy from one place to another
without transfer of matter

Two types of progressive waves

Transverse Longitudinal

Vibration of particles right angles to Vibration of particles parallel to

direction of energy transfer direction of energy transfer

Eg: EM waves, surface water waves, and Eg: Sound waves, and primary
secondary seismic waves (S-waves) seismic waves (P-waves)

Important terms

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●​ Displacement (𝑠) → The displacement of a particle in a wave is its distance in a
specified direction from its rest/ equilibrium position

○​ Displacement is a vector quantity → + or –

○​ Amplitude (𝐴) → maximum displacement of a particle in the wave

from its rest/equilibrium position (only the magnitude - hence never
negative)

●​ Phase difference between progressive waves:

○​ Compares the displacement and relative motion of particles in a wave​

○​ In-Phase: Two particles vibrate together with the same displacement

and motion in the same direction

○​ Wavefronts: Lines joining points that are in-phase

○​ Phase Difference: Occurs when crests and troughs of waves do not align

○​ Anti-Phase: The crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another.
Phase difference = 180° or π radians

●​ Period (𝑇) → Time taken for a particle to complete one oscillation or cycle

●​ Frequency (𝑓) → Number of oscillations/ cycles per unit time

●​ Wavelength (λ) → Minimum distance between adjacent crests/troughs

○​ Distance between two wavefronts → wavelength

●​ Speed (𝑣) → Speed of the wave

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Wave equation
●​ The wave equation → 𝑣 = 𝑓λ

●​ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Derivation
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
●​ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑑
●​ 𝑣 = 𝑡

●​ The time taken by a wave to travel a distance equivalent to its wavelength (λ) is its
time period (𝑇) → hence substitute 𝑑 with λ and 𝑡 with 𝑇
λ
●​ 𝑣 = 𝑇

1 1
●​ Since 𝑇 = 𝑓
we can substitute 𝑇 with 𝑓

λ
●​ 𝑣 = 1/𝑓

●​ 𝑣 = 𝑓λ

Intensity
●​ Intensity → power per unit area
𝑃
○​ 𝐼 = 𝐴

●​ When 𝑓 is constant:
2
○​ 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴 → Intensity is directly proportional to the square of amplitude for
a progressive wave

●​ When 𝐴 is constant:
2
○​ 𝐼 ∝ 𝑓 → Intensity is directly proportional to the square of frequency for
a progressive wave

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

●​ y-axis → y-gain

●​ x-axis → time-base

●​ Example CRO trace:​

●​ Both y-axis and x-axis can be calibrated to varying scales

○​ Calibration will be stated as follows (eg):

−1
■​ Time-base setting is 2. 0 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑚
−1
■​ Y-gain is 2. 0 𝑉 𝑐𝑚

●​ Use details of the calibration to analyse the CRO trace and perform basic
calculations, such as finding the time period

7.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves

Two types of progressive waves

Transverse Longitudinal

Vibration of particles right angles to Vibration of particles parallel to

direction of energy transfer direction of energy transfer

Eg: EM waves, surface water waves, and Eg: Sound waves, and primary
secondary seismic waves (S-waves) seismic waves (P-waves)

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7.3 Doppler effect for sound waves

●​ When source of sound moves relative to a stationary observer → observed
frequency ≠ source frequency

●​ Equation to calculate observed frequency (𝑓𝑜):

𝑓𝑠𝑣
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑣±𝑣𝑠

○​ 𝑓𝑠→ source frequency

○​ 𝑣 → speed of the wave in the medium

○​ 𝑣𝑠→ speed of the source relative to observer

●​ Source is moving away → Add velocities

●​ Source is approaching → Subtract velocities

7.4 Electromagnetic spectrum

●​ All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel with the same speed 𝑐
8 −1
(speed of light → 3. 0 × 10 𝑚𝑠 ) in free space

●​ Wavelengths of different radiation in the e.m. spectrum (memorise the table):

Radiation Wavelength range/ 𝑚

Gamma rays 10
−10
− 10
−16

X Rays 10
−9 −12
− 10

Ultraviolet 10
−7
− 10
−9

Visible 4 × 10
−7
− 7 × 10
−9

Infrared 10
−2
− 10
−6

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Microwaves 10
−1 −3
− 10

Radio Waves 4
10 − 10
−1

●​ Wavelengths in the range 400-700 nm in free space are visible to the human eye

7.5 Polarisation
●​ Polarised wave → Oscillations are confined to a single plane or direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation

●​ Polarisation can only occur in transverse waves

Malus’s law
●​ Equation used to calculate the intensity of a plane-polarised e.m. wave after
transmission through a polarising filter
2
𝐼 = 𝐼0𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

○​ 𝐼 → Intensity of light after passing through the polariser

○​ 𝐼0 → Initial intensity of light before passing through the polarising filter

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○​ θ → angle between the light's initial polarisation direction and the
transmission axis of the polariser

🔥 Common mistake
When calculating light intensity through multiple polarisers, always measure
θ for each filter relative to the polarised light emerging from the previous
filter , not the initial light direction

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