SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

Dr. Md. Helal An Nahiyan

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
ROBOT ARCHITECTURE

 The term robot architecture is used to refer to how a

system is divided into subsystems and how those
subsystems interact.
 Robot systems operate in complex dynamic real-time
environments. These systems have to:
 to control diverse sensors and actuators in real time,
 in the face of significant uncertainty and noise
 while monitoring for, and reacting to, unexpected
situations
 and do all this concurrently and asynchronously
 Moreover, robot systems need to respond at varying
temporal scopes from millisecond feedback control to
minutes, or hours, for complex tasks.
ROBOT ARCHITECTURE
 Robot’s architecture can be decomposed into three
functional elements: sensing, planning, and executing.
 The sensing system translated the sensor data into an
internal world model.
 The planner took the internal world model and a goal and
generated a plan (i.e., a series of actions) that would achieve
the goal.
 The executor took the plan and sent the actions to the robot.
 This approach is called the sense-plan-act(SPA) paradigm.
ROBOT ARCHITECTURE

 Sense, Plan, Act was an early robot control procedure

commonly abbreviated SPA. Today we use its
fundamental concepts to remind us of the three critical
capabilities that every robot must have in order to
operate effectively:
 SENSE: The robot needs the ability to sense important
things about its environment, like the presence of
obstacles or navigation aids.
 PLAN: The robot needs to take the sensed data and
figure out how to respond appropriately to it, based on
a pre-existing strategy.
 ACT: Finally, the robot must actually act to carry out
the actions that the plan calls for.
ROBOT COMPONENTS

 Manipulator/ rover – the main body of the robot,

consist of the links, the joints and others structural
elements of the robot.

 End Effector – the part that is connected to the last

joint of a manipulator.

 Sensors – used to collect information about the

internal state of the robot or to communicate with the
outside environment.

 Actuators – the muscles of the manipulators

(servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic and
hydraulic cylinders)
ROBOT COMPONENTS

 Controller – receives data from computer, controls the

motions of the actuators and coordinates the motions with
the sensory feedback information.
 Processor – calculates the motions of the robot’s joints,
determines how much and how fast each joint must move to
achieve the desired location and speeds, and oversees the
coordinated actions of the controller and the sensors.
 Software – consist operating system which operates the
computer, robotic software which calculates the necessary
motions of each joint based on the kinematics equations and
applications program that are developed in order to use the
peripheral devices of the robots, such as visions routines or
to perform specific task.
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
 A sensor is a window for a robot to the environment which
measure quantities that the robot can use to achieve given
tasks. Sensors allow robots to understand and measure the
geometric and physical properties of objects in their
surrounding environment, such as position, orientation,
velocity, acceleration, distance, size, force, moment,
temperature, luminance, weight, etc.
 Examples of what a robot may need to determine include:
 How far away and where is an object (like another robot, a light,
a wall)?
 At what speed is the robot moving?
 If the robot is on a hill, at what angle is it?
 If the robot is rotating, by how much has it rotated?
 Where is the robot, or in what direction is it going?
 How far it has travelled?
 How much power has it consumed?
 What information is being communicated to the robot?
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
 Sensors are generally classified into two groups:
internal sensors and external sensors.
 Internal sensors are used to measure the robot itself,
for instance:
 How fast it is going
 The angle of the robot
 Where it’s ‘gripper’ is
 How much power it’s consuming
 Internal sensors such as its position sensor, velocity
sensor, acceleration sensors, motor torque sensor, etc.
obtain the information about the robot itself.
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
 External sensors are used to measure other objects,
for instance:
 How far away is an object?
 Where is the object?
 External sensors such as
 cameras for viewing the environment,
 range sensors (IR sensor, laser range finder, and ultrasonic
sensor) contact and proximity sensors (photodiode, IR
detector, RFID, touch, etc.)
 and force sensors (measuring the interaction forces with
the environment)
to gather the information from the surrounding environment.
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
 An actuator is a device which causes something to happen.

 This could be a robot movement, which is often achieved

using motors:
 An actuator is needed to make the robots wheels turn.
 Or the joints of a robot arm to rotate.
 Or for a robot gripper to open or close.
 Or it could be to let the others know what the robot is
doing.

 A light being turned on to indicate the robot is working.

 Sound is being emitted - so the actuator is a loudspeaker.
 Communication in some form - so a transmitter is needed.
 An LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen for showing
pictures and other data.
 SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
 Sensors are defined by various properties that describe
their capabilities:
 Sensitivity: Ratio of change in output to a unit
change of the input (change of output and change of
input)
 Linearity: Percentage of deviation from the best-fit
linear calibration curve (constancy of output and
input)
 Response Time: (time required for a change in input
to force a change in the output)
 Measurement Range: Difference between the
maximum and minimum value of the sensed
parameter
 Resolution: The smallest change the sensor can
differentiate (smallest observable increment)
 SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
 Accuracy: Difference between the measured value
and the true value
 Precision/ Repeatability: Ability to reproduce the
results repeatedly with a given accuracy (difference
between repeated measures)
POSITION MEASUREMENT
 An optical encoder is to measure the rotational angle
of a motor shaft.
 It consists of a light beam, a light detector, and a
rotating disc with a radial grating on its surface.
 The grating consists of black lines separated by clear
spaces. The widths of the lines and spaces are the
same.
 Line: cut the beam  a low signal output
 Space: allow the beam to pass  a high signal output
 A train of pulses is generated with rotation of the disc.
 By counting the pulses, it is possible to know the
rotational angle.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
 Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear /
angular displacement.
 These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the
rotation of shafts.
• An optical encoder
comprises of a disc with
three concentric tracks of
equally spaced holes.
Three light sensors are
employed to detect the
light passing thru the
holes.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
 Three phases of signals:
 Phase A: A train of pulses
 Phase B: A train of pulses.
 Phase Z: A single pulse per turn.
 The phase difference between Phase A and Phase B is 90
degrees.
 The Z-pulse is used as a reference angle (zero angle) so that
the absolute angle can be detected.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
 The direction of rotation is determined by checking which
phase of signals is leading.
 If Phase A signals are leading, the rotation is in the
clockwise direction.
 If Phase B signals are leading, the rotation is the
counterclockwise direction.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
 The resolution of measurement can be determined by the number
of holes on disc.
 Resolution, S = 3600 / number of lines (spaces)
 The smaller is the resolution, the better is the measurement

 How to increase the resolution, i.e. to make the value of s smaller.

 Increase the number of lines/spaces  the manufacturing cost
will be increased
 Evaluate the two trains of pulses. The evaluation means to take
set operations, interpolation, etc.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
 In robotics, we are more interested in the measurement
of joint angles instead of the angle of the motor shaft.
 By adding a reduction mechanism (gear box, etc.), the
measurement resolution of the joint angle will be
increased n times, where n is the gear ratio (velocity
ratio) of the reduction mechanism.
 POTENTIOMETER SENSORS
 Figure shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer
sensor employed to measure the linear displacement. The
potentiometer can be of linear or angular type.

• It works on the principle of

conversion of mechanical
displacement into an
electrical signal.
• The sensor has a resistive
element and a sliding
contact (wiper).
• The slider moves along
this conductive body,
acting as a movable
electric contact.
POTENTIOMETER SENSORS
 During the sensing operation, a
voltage Vs is applied across the
resistive element.
 A voltage divider circuit is formed
when slider comes into contact with
the wire.
 The output voltage (VA) is measured
as shown in the figure. The output
voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the slider over the
wire.
 Then the output parameter
displacement is calibrated against the
output voltage VA.
POTENTIOMETER SENSORS
 VA = I RA
 But I = VS / (RA + RB)

 Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB)

 As we know that R = ρ L / A,
where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is
length of resistor and A is area of
cross section
 VA = VS LA / (LA + LB)
APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER
 These sensors are primarily used in the control systems
with a feedback loop to ensure that the moving member
or component reaches its commanded position.
 These are typically used on machine-tool controls,
elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks,
automobile throttle controls.
 In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection
molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing,
spraying, robotics, etc.
 These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of
sports equipment.
 ULTRASONIC DISTANCE SENSOR
 The sensor emits an ultrasonic pulse and is captured by a
receiver. Since the speed of sound is almost constant in air,
which is 344m/s, the time between send and receive is calculated
to give the distance between robot and the obstacle.
 The sound generator generates short ultrasonic impulses and
triggers the timer. Second membrane registers the arrival of the
sound impulse and stops the timer. From the timers time it is
possible to calculate the distance traveled by the sound.
 ULTRASONIC DISTANCE SENSOR
 Ultrasound is reliable in any lighting environment and can be
used inside or outside. Ultrasonic sensors can handle collision
avoidance for a robot.
 Ultrasonic Sensors are best used in the non-contact detection of:
 Presence , Level, Position, Distance
 Ultrasonics are Independent of:
 Light, Smoke, Dust, Color
 Material (except for soft surfaces, i.e. wool, because the surface absorbs the
ultrasonic sound wave and doesn’t reflect sound.)
 Ultrasonic sensors are superior to infrared sensors because they
aren’t affected by smoke or black materials, however, soft
materials which don’t reflect the sonar (ultrasonic) waves very
well may cause issues. It’s not a perfect system, but it’s good
and reliable.
INFRARED DISTANCE SENSOR
 Infrared sensors work on the principle of reflected light
waves. The reflected light is detected and then an estimate of
distance is calculated between sensor and object.
 IR circuits are designed on triangulation principle for distance
measurement. A transmitter sends a pulse of IR signals which is
detected by the receiver if there is an obstacle and based on the
angle the signal is received, distance is calculated.
INFRARED DISTANCE SENSOR
 Infrared sensor values normally fluctuate in variant light conditions.
 There are a lot of limitations in infrared sensors, like the inability to
use them in sunlight due to interference. It can make outdoor
applications or dark indoor applications difficult.
 Ultrasonic sensors work using sound waves, detecting obstacles is not
affected by as many factors. If reliability is an important factor in
sensor selection, ultrasonic sensors are more reliable than IR sensors. If
reliability is compromised for cost, infrared sensors are ideal.
LASER RANGE SENSOR
 Laser light is transmitted, and the reflected light is captured and
analyzed.
 Distance is measured by calculating the speed of light and time
taken for the light to reflect back to the receiver. These sensors
are very useful for longer distances.
LASER RANGE SENSOR
 STRAIN GAUGES
 The strain in an element is a ratio of
change in length in the direction of
applied load to the original length of
an element.
 The strain changes the resistance R of
the element. Therefore,
ΔR/R α ε;
ΔR/R = G ε
 where G is the constant of
proportionality and is called as gauge
factor.
 Strain gauge comprises of a pattern of
resistive foil arranged as shown in
Figure
STRAIN GAUGES
• These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45%
alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic (ployimide),
epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy.
• The strain gauges are secured to the work piece by using epoxy
or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL.
• As the work piece undergoes
change in its shape due to
external loading, the resistance
of strain gauge element
changes.
• This change in resistance can
be detected by a using a
Wheatstone’s resistance bridge
as shown in Figure.
STRAIN GAUGES
 In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,
 R2/ R1 = Rx / R3

 where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is

balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and R3 are known constant
value resistors.

• The measured deformation or

displacement by the stain
gauge is calibrated against
change in resistance of
adjustable resistor R2 which
makes the voltage across
nodes A and B equal to zero.
APPLICATIONS OF STRAIN GAUGES
 Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress
analysis and diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
 They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue
testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration
measurement, torque measurement, bending and
deflection measurement, compression and tension
measurement and strain measurement.
 Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine
tools and safety in automotives.
 In particular, they are employed for force measurement
in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as
impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
 A sensor that utilizes the piezoelectric effect, to measure changes
in acceleration, strain, pressure, and force by converting them
into electrical charge is called as a piezoelectric sensor.
 The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material
which has a special property, i.e. the material induces voltage
when the pressure or stress applied to it.
 Piezo is a Greek word which means ‘press’ or ‘squeeze’. The
word piezoelectric means the electricity produces by the
pressure. The Quartz is the examples of the natural piezoelectric
crystals, whereas the Rochelle salts, ammonium dehydration,
phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are the
examples of the man made crystals.
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
 The generated piezoelectricity is proportional to the pressure
applied to the solid piezoelectric crystal materials.
 A piezoelectric force sensor, responds directly to an applied force:
the associated deformation is in most cases negligibly small,
assuring small loading errors in the force measurement.
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary
transducer used for measurement of linear displacement with an
input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-
linearity error ± 0.25% of full range.
 Figure shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three coils
symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is
primary coil and the other two are secondary coils.
 A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is
to be monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.
LVDT
LVDT SENSORS
 Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil,
alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs) are generated in
secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed
with its half portion in each of the secondary coil regions then
the resultant voltage is zero.
LVDT SENSORS
 If the core is displaced from the central position as shown in
Figure, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then more
emf is generated in coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant
voltage from the coils.
 If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of
resultant voltage increases in proportion with the displacement.
LVDT SENSORS
 With the help of signal processing devices such as low
pass filters and demodulators, precise displacement can
be measured by using LVDT sensors.
 LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It
is generally used as an absolute position sensor. Since
there is no contact or sliding between the constituent
elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors
are completely sealed and are widely used in
Servomechanisms, automated measurement in machine
tools.
APPLICATIONS OF LVDT SENSORS
 Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve
applications
 To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders

 To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz.

tablets or pills
 For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being
packed for dispatch
 To measure distance between the approaching metals during
Friction welding process
 To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection
system
 To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS
 Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-
magnetic but conductive materials. They comprise of a coil, an
oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit. Figure shows the
construction of eddy current proximity switch.
EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS
• When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an
alternative magnetic field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then
eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic
field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation. As
a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of
alternating current.
EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS
 This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined
level of change in current.
 Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in
small in size, highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small
displacements.
APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT
PROXIMITY SENSORS

 Automation requiring precise location

 Machine tool monitoring

 Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk

drives
 Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving
target, such as a vibrating element,
 Drive shaft monitoring

 Vibration measurements
L IGHT SENSORS
 Photoresistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with
change in light intensity; more light leads to less resistance and
less light leads to more resistance. These inexpensive sensors
can be easily implemented in most light dependant robots.
 Photovoltaic cells convert solar radiation into electrical energy.
This is especially helpful to build a solar robot. Although
photovoltaic cell is considered as an energy source, an
intelligent implementation combined with transistors and
capacitors can convert this into a sensor.
SOUND SENSOR
 This sensor (generally a microphone) detects sound and returns a
voltage proportional to the sound level. A simple robot can be
designed to navigate based on the sound it receives. Imagine a
robot which turns right for one clap and turns left for two claps.
Complex robots can use the same microphone for speech and
voice recognition.
 Sound sensors generate a very small voltage difference which
should be amplified to generate measurable voltage change.
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
 What if your robot has to work in a desert and transmit ambient
temperature? Simple solution is to use a temperature sensor.
Tiny temperature sensor ICs provide voltage difference for a
change in temperature. Few generally used temperature sensor
IC’s are LM34, LM35, TMP35, TMP36, and TMP37.
CONTACT SENSOR
 Contact sensors are those which require physical contact against
other objects to trigger. A push button switch, limit switch or
tactile bumper switch are all examples of contact sensors.
 These sensors are mostly used for obstacle avoidance robots.
When these switches hit an obstacle, it triggers the robot to do a
task, which can be reversing, turning, switching on a LED,
Stopping etc. There are also capacitive contact sensors which
react only to human touch. Contact Sensors can be easily
implemented, but the drawback is that they require physical
contact.
ACTUATOR
 An actuator is a specific type of a transducer which is a type
of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a
mechanism or system that is operated by a source of energy,
typically electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or
pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion.

 Actuator plays a very important role while implementing control.

The controller provides command signal to the actuator for
actuation.
 The controller codes aim at deriving the actuator when an event
has occurred.
ACTUATORS FOR ROBOTS
 Actuators are used in order to produce mechanical movement in
robots.
 Actuators are the muscles of robots. There are many types of
actuators available depending on the load involved. The term
load is associated with many factors including force, torque,
speed of operation, accuracy, precision and power consumption.
 Hydraulic actuators

 Pneumatic actuators

 Electric motor
 DC motor, Servomotor, Stepper motor
 Direct drive motor
 Magnetostrictive actuators

 Shape memory metal actuators

ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
 Electromechanical actuators convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Magnetism is the basis of their principle of
operation. They are DC, AC and stepper motors.
 DC motor require a direct current or voltage source as the input
signals.
 AC motors require an alternating current or voltage source.

 Stepper motors have capability of achieving precision angular

rotation in both directions and are commonly employed to
accommodate digital control technology.
HYDRAULIC, PNEUMATIC AND OTHER
ACTUATORS
 Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are under fluid power
actuators. Fluid power refers to energy that is transmitted via a
fluid under pressure. When a pressure is applied to a confined
chamber containing a piston, the piston will exert a force
causing a motion.

 Materials which undergo some sort of transformations through

physical interaction, are referred to as active materials.
Piezoelectric (voltage-load), shape-memory alloys (react to
heat), magnetostrictive are examples of these materials.
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF ACTUATORS
 Power
 Weight

 Price
Examples (important properties)
Underwater Robots
 Accuracy
 waterproof operation
 Response Time  Space Robots
 Reliability  liftoff weight, reliability
 Maintenance  Industrial Robots
 power, accuracy
 Entertainment Robots
 price
There is no ideal actuator, so it should be selected properly
considering important properties.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTUATOR SYSTEMS
 Power-to-Weight Ratio
 Power-to-Weight ratio  Mobility of Robots
 Ideal : low weight, high power
 Hydraulic > Electric > Pneumatic
 However hydraulic requires heavy power units (pump, reservoir, filters…)

 Stiffness vs. Compliance

 Stiff System (Hydraulic)
 Good : Rapid response, Accurate control
 Bad : Dangerous
 Compliant System (Pneumatic)
 Good : Less dangerous
 Bad : Slow response, Inaccurate control

 Direct Drive vs. Reduction Gear

 Direct Drive (Hydraulic, Pneumatic)
 Simple Structure  reduction of weight, cost, joint inertia, backlash, noise…
 Reduction Gear (Electric)
 Complex Structure  increase of weight, cost, joint inertia, backlash, noise…
 But it also increases the resolution of the system.  very accurate control
 SUMMARY OF ACTUATOR CHARACTERISTICS
Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic
G • Good for large robots and • Good for all sizes of robots • Reliable components
o heavy payload • Better control, good for high • No leaks or sparks
o • Highest power/weight ratio precision robots • Inexpensive and simple
d • Stiff system, high accuracy, • Higher compliance than • Low pressure compared
better response hydraulics to Hydraulics
• No reduction gear needed • Reduction gears used to reduce • Good for on-off
• Can work in wide range of inertia on the motor applications and for pick
speeds without difficulty • No leak, good for clean room and place
• Can be left in position • Reliable, low maintenance • Compliant systems
without any damage • Can be spark-free. Good for
explosive environments
B • May leak. Not fit for clean room • Low stiffness • Noisy systems
a • Requires pump, reservoir, • Needs reduction gears, • Require air pressure,
d motor, hoses, etc. increased backlash, cost, weight, filter, etc.
• Can be expensive and noisy. etc. • Difficult to control their
Requires maintenance • Motor needs braking device linear position
• Viscosity of oil changes with when not powered. Otherwise, • Deform under load
temperature the arm will fall constantly
• Very susceptible to dirt and • Very low stiffness.
other foreign material in oil Inaccurate response
• Low compliance • Lowest power to weight
• High torque, high pressure, ratio
large inertia on the actuator
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR
 Actuators are output devices which convert energy from
pressurized hydraulic oil or compressed air into the required type
of action or motion. In general, hydraulic or pneumatic systems
are used for gripping and/or moving operations in industry.
 Actuators can be classified into three types.
 Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into
linear motion.
 Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into
rotary motion.
 Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to control the
flow and pressure of fluids such as gases, steam or liquid.
 The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is
similar. However they differ at their operating pressure ranges.
Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 bar and of
pneumatic system is around 10 bar.
HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
 A hydraulic system generally consists of the following parts:
 Hydraulic linear or rotary cylinders to provide the force or torque
needed to move the joints and are controlled by servo valve or manual
valve.
 A hydraulic pump to provide high pressure fluid to the system
 Electric motor to operate the hydraulic pump.
 Cooling system to get rid of heat.
 Reservoir to keep fluid supply available to the system.
 Servo valve which is a very sensitive valve that controls the amount
and the rate of the fluid to the cylinders. The servo valve is generally
driven by a hydraulic servomotor.
 Sensors to control the motion of the cylinders (position, velocity,
magnetic, touch,..)
 Connecting hoses to transport the pressurized fluid.
 Safety check valves, holding valves.
PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
 Similar principals to hydraulic systems
 Pressurized air is used instead of hydraulic fluid.
 Controlled by manual or electrically controlled solenoid valves.
 Compressible air
 Accurate control is difficult.
 The actuator is usually all the way forward or all the way backward;
fully on or fully off.
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER
 These cylinders produce work in one direction of motion hence
they are named as single acting cylinders.
 The compressed air pushes the piston located in the cylindrical
barrel causing the desired motion. The return stroke takes place
by the action of a spring. Generally the spring is provided on the
rod side of the cylinder.
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
 The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston,
piston rod, cylinder tube, and end caps. The piston rod is
connected to piston head and the other end extends out of the
cylinder. The piston divides the cylinder into two chambers
namely the rod end side and piston end side. The seals prevent
the leakage of oil between these two chambers. The cylindrical
tube is fitted with end caps.
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
 The pressurized oil, air enters the cylinder chamber through the
ports provided. In the rod end cover plate, a wiper seal is
provided to prevent the leakage of oil and entry of the
contaminants into the cylinder. The combination of wiper seal,
bearing and sealing ring is called as cartridge assembly. The
piston seal prevents metal to metal contact and wear of piston
head and the tube. These seals are replaceable. End cushioning is
also provided to prevent the impact with end caps.
SINGLE AND DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
SAOLENOID

V ALVE
solenoid is a simple electromagnetic device that converts electrical
energy directly into linear mechanical motion, but it has a very short
stroke (length of movement), which limits its applications.
 The solenoid consists of a coil of wire with an iron plunger that is
allowed to move through the center of the coil.
 When the coil is energized, the resulting magnetic field pulls the
plunger to the middle of the coil. The magnetic force is unidirectional
— a spring is required to return the plunger to its un energized
position.
SOLENOID VALVE
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS
 Advantages
 Easy to control, low cost
 Power supply available almost everywhere
 Large variety of products
 Normally high velocities 1000-10000 rpm
 High power conversion efficiency
 No pollution in working environment

 Disadvantages
 Overheating
 Need special protection in flammable environments
ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR TYPES
 1. Servo Motor
 2. DC-motors

 3. Brushless DC-motors

 4. Asynchronous motors

 5. Synchronous motors

 6. Stepper Motor

 Most of the time servo motor is used in the most of the robotics
application.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
 An electric motor is a type of an electric actuator.
 Electric motors are based on the principle of electromagnetism.

 The mechanical construction uses two main components; a

Stator and a Rotor.
 Stator is a stationary component of the motor and rotor is a
rotating component. Stator generally has permanent magnets (in
some cases electromagnetic windings), and rotor has
electromagnets (in some cases permanent magnets) attached.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
 When electric current passes through the electromagnet, it
creates a magnetic field generating a magnetic force between the
stator and the rotor.
 The attractive and repulsive forces between the electromagnet
and the permanent magnet make the rotor to turn and rotate.
 To get the rotor to turn, the electromagnets create a repulsive
force at one end (pole) which attracts the permanent magnet
towards the other end of the electromagnet.
 Once the rotor does a half-turn, the poles of the electromagnet
flips (North to south or south to North) pushing the rotor further
towards the other end. The process continues creating a circular
motion.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
 The force created by the magnetic field between the rotor and
the stator determines the torque of the motor.
 Number of times the rotor rotates in one minute determines the
velocity of the motor, measured as Revolutions per Minute
(RPM).
 Hence whenever you intend to buy a motor, always watch out
for RPM and torque of the motor.
 Installing gears can increase either torque or velocity, but
reducing the other.
AC MOTORS AND DC MOTORS
 AC Motor: Motors are designed to run on Alternate current
(AC) or Direct Current (DC). However, it is very uncommon to
use AC motors in mobile robots as they are harder to use, and
most of the robots and circuits are DC powered. Therefore AC
powered motor is limited to stationary and industrial robots.

 DC motor: DC motors are very easy to implement and most

commonly used actuators in robots. There are different types of
DC motors available.

 Types of DC Motors:
 Brushed DC motor, Brushless DC motor, Gear motor, Stepper
motor, Servo motor, etc.
 DC MOTOR
 The stator creates a fixed magnetic field.
 The rotor carries a current.  Magnetic Force

 Brushes and commutators change the direction of current causing

the rotor to rotate continuously.
 Mechanical Switch: a) can be broken, b) generates noise signal
DC MOTOR
G EARED DC MOTOR
 DC motors are often coupled with gears which provide greater
torque, but reducing speed. Normally all our robots would
require a geared DC motor to pull the weight of our robot and
any additional components placed.
 In DC gear motor, the motor shaft is connected to another bigger
gear, which is further connected to a larger gear. As the motor
rotates, the rotations per minute (rpm) of Gear1 is lesser than the
motor. Gear2 has even less number of rotations per minute.
However, each gear increases the torque of overall setup.
BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS
 Hybrid between AC and DC motors - similar construction as AC
 Operated with an electronically switched DC waveform that is similar
to AC current, not limited to 50 Hz
 Can be operated at any speed
 Needs a controller circuit to electrically switch the DC waveform
 Feedback from optical encoder or hall effect sensor
 Rotor usually has 3 phases
 3 currents, with 120° phase shift
 Brushless motors are very useful in robots as they are more capable;
they provide enough torque, and greater speeds than brushed motors.
Brushless motors are expensive due to their design complexity and
need a controller to control their speed and rotation.
SERVO SYSTEM
 Servo is mechanism based on feedback control.
 The controlled quantity is mechanical.

 Properties of Servo Motor

 High maximum torque/force allows high (de)acceleration
 High zero speed torque/force
 High bandwidth provides accurate and fast control
 Works in all four quadrants
 Robustness
SERVO MOTORS
 These are DC/AC/Brushless motors coupled with a feedback
control circuitry, a gear system to increase torque and a position
sensing device. When a signal (pulse) is sent, it moves the motor
shaft to a desired position using the position feedback from a
potentiometer. Servos do not exhibit continuous rotation, but are
limited to a specific range (generally 200° back and forth) and
requires us to modify it for continuous rotation.
 Since servos expect a control signal, there is an additional wire
running into the servo which takes control pulses. Hence they
have three wires; Ground, Power and Control pulse.
 Servos have a wide range of applications in robotics.
STEPPER MOTOR
 Stepper motors are brushless motors which divides the rotor’s
rotation into discrete number of steps when electrical pulses are
applied in an expected sequence.
 In other words, a brushless motor rotates continuously when
voltage is applied across, but a stepper motor breaks it into
steps per revolution and jumps each step for a certain pulse.
Unlike a servo motor, stepper motor does not require any
complex position feedback mechanism; on the torque side,
stepper motors are similar to brushed DC motors with less
torque.
STEPPER MOTOR
 A sequence of (3 or more) poles is activated in turn, moving the stator
in small “steps”.
 Very low speed/high angular precision is possible without reduction
gearing by using many rotor teeth.
 A Stepper motor is a digital actuator where input is in the form of
programmed energization of stator winding and output is in the form
of discrete angular position.
 Rotation of rotor occurs because of magnetic interaction between
rotor pole and poles of sequentially energized stator winding.
AC MOTOR
 Same as DC except rotor is permanent magnet, stator houses
windings, no commutators or brushes.
 No Brush : long working life
 As flux generated by AC current changes, rotor follows it and
rotates.
 Fixed nominal speeds:
 Functions of number of poles on rotor and line frequency (50 Hz)
 Better at dissipating heat than DC motors
 Higher Power than DC Motors
PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR
 When an electricity flows through a piezoelectric material, it
creates a physical deformation which is proportional to the
applied electric field, known as indirect piezoelectric effect.
 This precise deformation can be used to position objects with
extreme accuracy, almost at µm accuracy.
 The strokes of these actuators can also be amplified if required,
because direct strokes from these peizoelectric actuators are
generally less than 100 µm.
TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM
OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS

Open loop system

Open loop system

SENSORS
 Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon
(temperature, displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional
output signal (electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).
 The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors.
However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a change
in the physical phenomenon. On the other hand, a transducer is a
device that converts one form of energy into another form of
energy.
 Sensors are transducers when they sense one form of energy
input and output in a different form of energy. For example, a
thermocouple responds to a temperature change (thermal energy)
and outputs a proportional change in electromotive force
(electrical energy). Therefore, a thermocouple can be called a
sensor and or transducer.
SENSOR/TRANSDUCERS SPECIFICATIONS

 Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect

systems. Design engineer must know the capability and
shortcoming of a transducer or measurement system to
properly assess its performance.
 There are a number of performance related parameters of a
transducer or measurement system. These parameters are
called as sensor specifications.
 Sensor specifications inform the user about the deviations
from the ideal behavior of the sensors.
EDDY CURRENT (D30) SENSOR

Sensor Calibration, Z-1

10

4
y = 3.0x - 23.1
Voltage (V)

2 R² = 0.9991

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance (mm)
TYPES OF ROBOT SENSORS
 Distance Sensor (IR, Ultrasonic, Laser, Encoders, Stereo
Camera)
 Proximity Sensor (IR, Ultrasound, Photo resistor)

 Contact Sensor

 Pressure Sensor

 Temperature Sensor

 Light Sensor

 Sound Sensor

 Tilt Sensor

 Navigation/ Positioning Sensor (GPS)

 So on….