School of Criminology

Forensic Ballistics

Course Code
Course Description Forensic Ballistics
Module No. and Title Module 1: Introduction to Ballistics

1. Ballistics is the study of the motion of the projectiles.

Origin of the Term “Ballistics”
a. Greek word Ballo or Ballein which means “to throw.”
b. Roman war machine Ballista, a “gigantic bow or catapult”
2. Science, as used in this subject, refers to the systematized body of knowledge regarding firearms.
3. Projectile refers to the bullet/slug/ball/pellet/flechette that passes through the barrel of FA.
4. Forensic Ballistics is the science of firearms identification by means of the ammunition fired
through them.
5. Forensic – as applied to ballistics or to any other subjects suggests a relationship to a court of
justice and legal proceedings. Derived from the Latin word Forensis which means “Forum,” that
means “a public/market place, wherein people gathered for discussion of a subject in issue. 6.
Motion - movement of projectile inside and outside barrel.
Kinds of Motion:
a. Direct motion – the forward movement of projectile with the action of expansive force of
gases.
b. Rotary motion – the turning of bullet inside and outside barrel with the action of the
rifling.
c. Translational motion - the movement of projectile after hitting a penetrable target. If the
target is non-penetrable, ricochet may happen.
Branches of Ballistics

1. Interior Ballistics

• Also called Internal and Initial Ballistics

• The study of projectile while it is still inside the barrel
• The movement of projective from Breech to the Muzzle of barrel
Processes included in the study of Interior Ballistics:

1. Firing pin hits the primer

2. Ignition of priming mixture
3. Combustion of gun powder
4. Expansion of the heated gas in the chamber
5. Pressure will be developed (pounds per square inch)
6. Energy generated (foot pound)
7. Recoil of the firearm
8. Velocity of bullet inside the barrel (feet per second)
9. Rotating of the bullet inside the barrel.
10.Engraving of the cylindrical surface of bullet
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

2. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS (also called External Ballistics) - from after leaving the muzzle to before
immediately hitting the target.

Related Terms:
1. Muzzle blast is the noise or sound created at the muzzle.
2. Muzzle energy is the energy generated at the muzzle.
3. Trajectory is the actual curve path of the bullet. Stages of trajectory:
a) Straight horizontal line
b) Parabola like flight
c) Vertical drop
4. Range refers to the distance between muzzle and target.
Kinds of Range:
a) Effective or Accurate Range is the distance the projective can reach wherein the effect is
expected to be lethal (may cause death) or that damage is huge.
b) Maximum range is the maximum distance a projectile can reach. Every FA has its own
specifications including the maximum range of its projectile.
5. Velocity is the speed of bullet or the rate of the speed of the bullet that is measured feet per
second(FPS).
6. Air resistance is the capacity of the bullet to resist air during its flight from the muzzle of the gun.
a) Aerodynamic drag is the dragging of the bullet downward due to air resistance.
b) Ballistic pendulum is the deceleration of bullet on flight due to gravity.
c) Inertia allows a body at rest to remain at rest or body in motion to remain in motion.
d) Yawing is the unstable movement of bullet on flight such as wobbling (Tail wag) or tumbling of bullet
before hitting target.
e) Keyhole shot is caused by yawing of bullet resulting to hitting of target sideways resulting to oval-
like entry of bullet.
7. Pull of gravity refers to the downward movement of the bullet after reaching its maximum range.
8. Penetration refers to the entry and lodged of the bullet to the target.
9. Perforation refers to the entry and exit of a projectile to the target.
10.Ricochet is the bouncing of a projectile from a non-penetrable surface.

3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS is the study of effects/impact of projectile to the target. a)

Terminal accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target
b) Terminal energy – energy of the projectile upon striking the target.
c) Terminal penetration – depth of the bullet penetration on the target. d)
Terminal velocity – speed of the bullet inside the target.

4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS is the science of FA identification by means of the ammunition firedt hrough
them.
▪ Field investigation – refers to the work of an investigator in the field.
▪ Technical Examination – refers to the examination/comparison conducted by
Firearmexaminer.
▪ Court Duties – the presentation of the “Ballistics Report” on firearms, bullet, shells andallied
exhibits in court.
▪ Approximation of Range - Measure the diameter of the wound (in inches) including
theoutermost perforations and then subtract 1 to arrive at the range of yards. 10 inches
diameter, the range is 9 yards. (Note: 1m=1.09 Yards)
▪ Muzzle imprint – appears with smudges of gunpowder with cherry-red discoloration.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Brief History of Forensic Ballistics

Historic events noted and important development in forensic ballistics

1. Alexandre Lacassagne
2. Edmond Locard
3. Col. Calvin Goddard
4. 1920
Alexander Lacassagne (1884-1921)
- He was the first to recognized the significance of the striations etched found on a bullet
extracted from a murder victim and its link to the gun from which it was fired, thus
beginning the science of ballistics.
Edmond Locard (1877-1966)
- He established the first Forensic laboratory in France. He stated in his exchanged principle
every contact, leaves a trace.
Col. Calvin H. Goddard (1891-1955)
- He was a forensic scientist, army officer, academic researcher and regarded as the “Father
of modern Ballistics”
1920’s
- It is when the first major step was taken in firearms identification through the development
of Comparison Microscope

Important Personalities behind the discovery of different firearms

1. John M. Browning
2. Samuel Colt
3. Henry Deringer
4. Alexander John Forsyth
5. Major Uziel Gal
6. John C. Grand
7. George Hyde
8. Gordon B. Ingram
9. Lt. Gen. Mikhail T. Kalashnikov
10. Gorge Luger
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

The importance of ballistics in criminology and forensic science can be summarized as follows:

1. Crime Scene Reconstruction

• Ballistics helps determine the sequence of events at a crime scene by analyzing bullet trajectories,
angles, and impact points. This information can assist investigators in understanding the positions
and actions of individuals involved in a crime.

2. Identification of Firearms

• Forensic ballistics allows experts to link a specific bullet or cartridge case to a particular firearm
through unique markings, such as rifling patterns and firing pin impressions. This helps establish
connections between suspects and weapons.

3. Evidence in Court

• Ballistic evidence, such as bullet comparisons and gunshot residue analysis, is often presented in
court to support investigations. Accurate ballistics analysis strengthens the prosecution's or defense's
case by providing scientifically validated findings.

4. Understanding Gunshot Residue (GSR)

• Analysis of GSR can determine whether a suspect has recently fired a weapon or been near a
discharged firearm. This is critical in corroborating or refuting alibis and statements.

5. Linking Crimes

• Ballistics databases, such as the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS), allow law
enforcement to connect bullets and cartridge cases to previously recorded crimes, identifying serial
offenses and linking suspects to multiple incidents.

6. Supporting Autopsy Findings

• Ballistics experts collaborate with forensic pathologists to determine the cause and manner of death
in shooting incidents. Bullet wounds, entry/exit paths, and caliber analysis provide crucial
information during autopsies.

7. Public Safety and Prevention

• Ballistic analysis aids in identifying illegal firearms trafficking and unregistered weapons. By tracing
firearms, authorities can combat gun-related crimes and improve public safety.

8. Training and Development

• Knowledge of ballistics is crucial for criminologists and forensic scientists to understand weapon
mechanics, firearm safety, and investigative techniques, improving their overall efficiency in criminal
investigations.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Course Code
Course Description Forensic Ballistics
Module No. and Title Module 2: Firearms

Definition of terms

1. Firearms (Legal) – includes all rifles, revolvers, pistols, muskets, shotguns, carbines andall
otherdeadly weapons from which a projectile maybe discharged.

2. Firearms (Technical) – used in the propulsion of projectile by means of expansive force of

gasesfrom burning

3. Rifle – designed to be fired from the shoulder.

4. Musket – smoothbore firearm designed to shoot single pellet.

5. Shotgun – smoothbore firearm designed to shoot several pellets.

 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

6. Revolver – a handgun with rotating cylinder. Kinds are Solid Frame (S.Colt), Swingout (US),
andBreak top (UK). As to firing mechanism, it could be single or double action.

7. Pistol – a handgun that could be semi-auto or auto/full auto. Processes include: loading,
cockingand firing.
✔ Kolibri auto pistol - (Cal 2.7mm, 5 shots) is the smallest pistol in the World, made in1914. ✔
Caliber .50 – now, considered the most powerful handgun in the world. It replaced Magnum .44.

8. Carbine – Came from the French “carabine.” This is a Cal .30 ( or equivalent to 7.62 x 33mm) FAinvented
by David “Carbine” William having a barrel of not more than 22 inches as shortenedversions of full-
length rifles. Usually its barrel measures 18 inches ( or 458mm). This FAuses rimless carbine cartridges
in 1940s.

Single Action vs. Double Action

1. Single Action Firearm is a mechanism of FA that requires manually cocking the hammer
before squeezing trigger when firing.
2. Double Action Firearm is a mechanism of a FA wherein squeezing the trigger
automatically releases the hammer.

General Types of FA According to Internal Barrel Construction

1. Smooth-bore Firearm has no rifling (lands and groove) inside its barrel such as Shotguns,
muskets and liberator.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

2. Rifled-bore Firearm has rifling inside the barrel such as pistols, revolvers and rifles.

Main Types of FA
1. Small Arms – include FA with one inch or less bore diameter. Examples: Shoulder arms, Handguns
& Machine Guns.
2. Artillery – more than one inch bore diameter. Examples: Cannons, Mortars, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FAs

1. Class Characteristics – these are firearms designs that were set even before the manufacture
of FAs. These are the factory specifications. This includes the following:
1. Caliber or Bore Diameter – determined with a bullet, shell, or bore of the gun.
2. No. of Lands and Grooves – always the same in number.
3. Width of Lands and Grooves – how wide the lands and grooves. NOT always the same.
4. Twist of Rifling – either RIGHT or LEFT.
5. Pitch of Rifling – one complete turn of bullet inside the barrel.
6. Depth of Grooves – how deep the groove or the height of every land.

2. Individual Characteristics – are determined after the manufacture of FA.

TWIST OF RIFLINGS OF HANDGUNS/SHORT ARMS

 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

• Steyr Type 4 Rifling, RHT

• Army type 4 Rifling, RHT
• Smith and Wesson Type 5 Rifling, RHT
• Colt type 6 Rifling, LHT
• Browning Type 6 Rifling, RHT
• Webley type 7 Rifling, RHT

TWIST OF RIFLINGS OF RIFLES

Browning Machine Gun Cal .50 = 8R, RHT

Equibman Rifle Cal .22 = 6R, RHT
Thompson Sub-Machine Gun = 6R, RHT
Remington Rifle Cal .30 = 6R, RHT
Remington Rifle Cal .30 = 2R, RHT
Armalite Cal .22 = 6R, RHT
Grease Gun Cal .45 = 4R, RHT
Browning Auto Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
Garand Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
Springfield Rifle Cal .30 = 4R, RHT
Winchester Rifle Cal .22 = 4R, RHT

Causes of Individual Characteristics

1. Tools that were used in the manufacture of the FAs are subject to wear and tear.
2. The action of weather and/or oxidation
3. Manner of storage
4. Manner and Frequency of Use

Types of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction

1. Single shot firearms – shoot only one shot
2. Repeating arms – loaded with more than one cartridge in the chamber.
3. Bolt action type – breech closure is in line with the bore at all times.
4. Lever action type – the breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever below the receiver
5. Slide/Pump Action - a movable forearms is actuated which is parallel to the barrel.
6. Semi-automatic type – requires a separate pull of trigger for each shot fired
7. Automatic action type – feeds cartridges, fires and ejects as long as trigger is depressed.
How a Semi-auto or Automatic Firearms Function

• Cocking
• Feeding
• Chambering
• Locking
• Firing
• Unlocking
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

• Extracting
• Ejecting

8. Machine gun type – (Heavy Machine Gun) used by military on combat. This is seldom
encountered by firearms examiner. The largest gun ever used in combat was Gustav Gun.
9. Sub-machine gun type (Light Machine Gun) - A light and portable machine gun
10. Shotguns Types
a. Single barreled shotgun - Loads, closes, fires and deloads single cartridge.
b. Double barreled shotgun - Side by side barrel or over and under.
c. Pump action type Shotgun/ Slide Action - The operated by means of sliding lever under
the barrel.
d. Auto-loading shotguns - The same as auto loading rifles, the recoil action reloads the
gun from the magazine.
e. Paradox gun (can be a rifle or shotgun) - A muzzle-rifled at the last 2-3 inches of the
barrel, used to spin the paradox bullet. Invented by Holland and Holland

Miscellaneous Guns

1. Gas guns – fire tear gas and other forms of disabling gases.
2. Traps – designed for wild animals. It could be with the use of bullet of poison charge.
3. Cane gun & Knife pistol - These are known as Freakish Devices

4. Tools – maybe used to drive stud, punch holes, and which are also capable of accidentally firing
live ammunition.
5. Zip guns (US) Paltik (Phils) – homemade guns.
6. Multi-barreled guns Have 2 or more barrels in one firearm.
7. Liberator - made by the US Government capable of firing .45 cartridges, single shot and smoothbore.
8. Flare guns - used in sending signals and used in seeing enemies in the dark
9. Harpoon Guns are used in hunting large fish.
The Gun Barrel

Process of Making Gun Barrel (Code is DRBL)

1. Drilling – making of hole of barrel with the use of barrel blank.
2. Reaming – with the drilled hole, it is being reamed from breech end to muzzle to remove
imperfections, scratches and irregularities. This operation undergoes 1) Roughing, 2) Finishing
3) Burnishing.
3. Broaching - the making of rifling inside the barrel. Tools used are: 1) Cutter 2) Scraper 3) Broach
4) Button.
4. Lapping - smoothening/polishing of the inner surface of the barrel.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

PARTS OF 9mm
PISTOL

PARTS OF M16 A1
RIFLE
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Course Code
Course Description Forensic Ballistics
Module No. and Title Module 3: Firearm Laws

Presidential Decree No. 1866 - Firearm law of the Philippines.

Republic Act No. 8294 – amended PD 1886 (Approved June 6, 1997)

• Complete Title: “Codifying the laws on illegal/unlawful possession, manufacture, dealing in,
acquisition or disposition of firearms, ammunition or explosives or instruments used in the
manufacture of firearms, ammunition and explosives, and imposing stiffer penalties for
certain violation thereof”

• Low Powered firearm – The unlawful manufacture, dealing in, acquisition, disposition
or possession of rimfire handgun, Cal .38, Cal .32 and other firearm of similar
firepower provided no other crime was committee is penalized by 4 years and 1 day
to 6 years imprisonment
• High Powered Firearm - The unlawful manufacture, dealing in, acquisition, disposition or
possession of this kind of gun is penalized by 6 years and 1 day to 8 years
imprisonment and a fine of P 30,000. High powered firearms includes Cal .40, Cal .41,
Cal .44, Cal .45 and other firearms with similar firepower such as 5.56MM, Cal 22 center
fire magnum, and Cal
.357 Magnum.
• If homicide or murder is committed with the use of unlicensed firearm, such use of
an unlicensed firearm shall be considered as an aggravating circumstance.
• If the violation is in furtherance of, or incidental to, or in connection with the crime of
rebellion, insurrection, sedition or subversion or attempted coup d’etat, such
violation shall be absorbed by the crimes mentioned.
• Tampering of Firearm’s Serial Number. The penalty of Prision Correctional for 4 years
shall be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully tamper, change, deface or erase
the serial number of any firearm.
Coverage of “Unlicensed firearm”

• Firearm which is unlicensed;

• Firearm with expired license; and
• Use of licensed firearm in the commission of crime.
• Licensed firearm with PTCFOR that is improperly carried.

Republic Act No. 10591

The newest law on firearms in the Philippines. This is known as the: “Comprehensive Firearm and
Ammunition Regulation Act of 2013” approved on May 29, 2013 by then President Benigno Simeon C.
Aquino III.

According to this law, either of the following are considered complete firearm:
• Frame/lower receiver
• Slide/upper receiver
• Barrel
Legal Sources of Firearms
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Firearms may be procured/purchased from any of the following sources:

• License Firearm from dealer, through purchase; or
Licensed Firearm from holder through transfer or sale.
• The firearms should be delivered by the transferor/vendor to the transferee/buyer
only after the previous has secured the corresponding firearm license and transport
permit.
• The importation or purchase of firearms and ammunition abroad by individuals has
been suspended by order of the president (SOP No. 13 dated 19 September 1991).

Kinds of Firearms License (PNP Module on Police Tactical Responses)

1. Regular license (RL) – is issued to private individuals for their personal firearm and to
security agencies/company guard forces for firearms to be used by their security guards;
2. Special permit (SP) – issued to government officials and employees for privately
owned firearms;
3. Long regular license (LRL) – issued to private firms, establishment, or
corporations for firearms to be used and being used by their employees, excluding security
guards;
4. Short regular License (SRL) – issued to private employee who was issued by his
employer a firearm covered by LRL.
5. Long certificate of registration (LCR) – issued to government agencies or offices and
government owned and controlled corporations for firearms to be used by their officials and
employees, excluding security guards; and
6. Short certificate of registration (SCR) – issued to government official or
employee who was issued by his employer a firearm covered by LCR.
o Note: Firearm Licenses are valid for 2 years.
o Notify the PNP Firearm and Explosive Office (PNP FEO) of any change on names, addresses.
o Make sure that you have the necessary transport permit for your firearm if you are
moving domicile.

Carry and transport of firearms

1. Transport permit (TP) – a written authority granted to licensees or their authorized

representatives to move firearms from sources to residence, firing ranges and other
authorized destinations.
2. Transport permits for gun club members – a written authority issued by PNPFEO to
accredited gun club members for the purpose of transporting unloaded firearms
and ammunition from residence to firing ranges and vice-versa. A maximum duration of
90 days is granted to gun club members.
3. License to possess firearm and ammunition – a written authority for a person to possess
in his residence a licensed firearm and an authorized quantity of ammunition.
4. Permit to carry firearm outside residence (PTCFOR) – a written authority issued to any
person by the PNP Chief for the duration and purpose specified therein. Residence - where the
firearm and ammunition are being permanently kept. It includes - office or house and premises of

the house enclosed by walls and gate separating said premises from adjacent properties.
Any vehicle is not an extension of a residence.
5. Hunting permit (HP) – issued for lawful hunting
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

6. Duty detail order (DDO) – serves as FA license for Security Guards.

7. Property Acknowledgement Receipt (PAR). This was formerly known as
Acknowledgement Receipt or so-called ‘Are,” is a document that proves receipt of issued FA to
PNP Personnel. This shall serve as FA License to members of PNP.
8. Mission order (for Military) or Letter Order (for Police) - issued to PNP personnel when
intending to carry FA outside residence. This shall serve as “PTC.” This document indicates what
firearm is issued to the members of a team with specific mission.

Manner of carrying firearms

1. The sidearm carried by a person in uniform shall be placed in a holster securely attached to
the belt, EXCEPT Military Pilots in flying uniform and the Crew of an armored vehicle who
may carry their firearm in shoulder holster.
2. The personnel in uniform but without holster and those in civilian clothes who are authorized
to carry firearm outside residence shall ensure that their firearm is concealed unless in actual
use for a legitimate purpose.
3. The practice of flagrantly displaying a firearm of tucking it at the waist while in
uniform or civilian clothes is prohibited.
4. Only the firearm specifically described in the permit shall be carried by the person
named therein.

PUNISHABLE ACTS AND PENALTIES

Unlawful Acquisition or Possession of Firearms and Ammunition. (Section 28)
PUNISHABLE ACTS PENALTIES
a. Unlawfully acquire or possess a small arm Prision Mayor in its medium period
b. Unlawfully acquire or possess 3 or more Small Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua
Arms or Class A light weapons
c. Unlawfully acquire or possess a Class-A light Penalty of Prision Mayor in its maximum period
weapon
d. Unlawfully acquire or possess a Class-B light Reclusion Perpetua
weapon

e. Unlawfully possess any firearm. One degree higher than that provided to a to c(see
preceeding table)
f. Unlawfully acquire or possess a major part of a Prision Mayor in its minimum period
small arm
g. Unlawfully acquire or possess ammunition for a Prision Mayor in its maximum period
small arm or Class-A light weapon
h. Unlawfully acquire or possess a major part of a Prision Mayorin its minimum period
Class-A light weapon;

i. Unlawfully acquire or possess ammunition for a Prision Mayor in its mediumperiod

Class-A light weapon.
k. Unlawfully acquire or possess ammunition for a Penalty of Prision Mayor in its maximum period
Class-B light weapon
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

PUNISHABLE ACTS AND PENALTIES

PUNISHABLE ACTS PENALTIES

Use of Loose Firearm in the Commission of a Prision Mayor in its minimum period
Crime.(Sec. 29)
Absence of Permit to Carry Outside of Prision Correccional and a fine of Ten thousand
Residence(Sec. 31) pesos (P10,000.00)
Unlawful Manufacture, Importation, Sale or Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua
Disposition of Firearms or Ammunition or Parts
Thereof, Machinery, Tool or Instrument Used or
Intended to be Used in the Manufacture of
Firearms, Ammunition or Parts Thereof(Sec. 32)
Arms Smuggling(Sec. 33) Reclusion Perpetua
Tampering, Obliteration or Alteration of Firearms Prision Correccional to Prision Mayor in its
Identification(Sec. 34) minimum period
Liability for Planting Evidence(Sec. 38) Prision Mayor in its maximum period
Failure to Notify Lost or Stolen Firearm or Light Fine of Ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00)
Weapon(Sec. 40)
Illegal Transfer/Registration of Firearms(Sec. 41) Prision Correccional

If government-issued firearms, ammunition or Reclusion Temporal

major parts of firearms or light weapons are
unlawfully disposed, sold or transferred by any
law enforcement agent or public officer to private
individuals,

1. Overview of International Firearm Laws: Firearm regulations vary globally. Some countries have strict
gun control laws, while others have more permissive policies. Understanding international laws helps in
recognizing global standards and differences.

2. Key International Treaties on Firearms:

• Arms Trade Treaty (ATT):

o Regulates the international trade of conventional weapons to prevent their illegal transfer.
o Requires states to establish controls on arms exports and imports.
• United Nations Protocol on Firearms:
o Aims to prevent the illicit manufacturing and trafficking of firearms.
o Encourages international cooperation to combat firearm-related crimes.

3. Importance of Global Cooperation:

 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

• Prevents cross-border firearm trafficking.

• Promotes peace and security.
• Establishes common standards for firearm regulations.

Example: Countries like Japan and the UK have some of the strictest firearm laws, requiring multiple
background checks and justification for firearm ownership.

E. Legal Use of Firearms (Self-Defense and Other Scenarios)

1. Legal Use of Firearms: Firearms can be legally used under specific conditions, often outlined by law, such
as:

• Self-Defense: Protecting oneself or others from immediate harm.

• Law Enforcement Duties: Used by police or military personnel during official operations.
• Sport and Recreation: Licensed firearms used for hunting or shooting competitions.

2. Self-Defense:

• Firearms can be used to protect against an unlawful attack.

• The use of a firearm must be proportional to the threat.
• Some jurisdictions apply the “Castle Doctrine” or “Stand Your Ground” laws, which allow individuals
to defend themselves in their homes or public spaces without retreating.

3. Responsibilities in Legal Use:

• Proper Licensing: Firearm owners must ensure they are properly licensed.
• Training: Regular training to ensure safe handling.
• Awareness: Understanding when and how firearms can be used legally.

4. Consequences of Misuse: Even in self-defense, misuse of firearms can result in legal repercussions, such
as:

• Civil liability for injuries caused.

• Criminal charges if the use of force is deemed excessive.

Example Scenarios:

• A homeowner legally uses a licensed firearm to stop an armed intruder.

• A licensed firearm owner participates in a sanctioned shooting competition.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Course Code
Course Description Forensic Ballistics
Module No. and Title Module 4: Ammunition and Cartridge

Ammunitions- A cartridge or ammunition, is a single unit of ammunition. For a modern small arms
cartridge this is the combination of bullet, propellant, primer, and cartridge case in a single unit. It refers
to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and pistols from which a bullet, ball,
shot, shell and other missiles maybe fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives. This term also
includes ammunition for air rifle as mentioned elsewhere in this code. (Sec. 877. Revised
Administrative Code)

Technically speaking: A round of ammunition refers to a single, live, unfired cartridge comprising the missile,
cartridge case, propellant and some form of primer. The term is also applied to live blank and tear -gas
ammunition. The primer is basically the means used for igniting the propellant. Ammunition refers to a
group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball),
primer, Cartridge case (shell), and gun powderi

.• In rimfire ammunition, the explosive priming compound is spun into the hollow rim of the cartridge
case.
• In centerfire ammunition, there is a small cup, called a primer cap, containing the priming
compound. This priming cap is inserted into a recess in the centerof the cartridge case.
• In percussion weapons, there is a small cup, very similar to the primer cap, which contains the
priming compound and fits onto a hollow nipple screwed into the breech end of the barrel.

Parts of Ammunition:
1.Bullet-the projectile/missile propelled through the barrel of the firearm by means of the expansion of hot
gases/force of gasses caused by the burning of gunpowder.

2.Cartridge case-the tubular metallic container which holds the gunpowder, the primer cap and the
bullet.

3.Gunpowder-A chemical or mixture of chemicals which, when ignited, produce a very large quantity
of gas. This gas, when confined within a barrel and behind a missile, provides the propulsion to drive
the missile down the bore and out of the barrel. The powder charge which, when ignited by the primer by
the primer flash, is converted to heated gas under high pressure and propels the bullet of shots charge
to the barrel and to the target.

Also define as the propellant or powder charge is the mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed
to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gases when it is burned.

4.Primer-Basically the means for igniting the propellant The metallic cup containing the highly sensitive
mixture of chemical compound, which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite. Is the ignition system
containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or burst into flame when struck by
the firing pin.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Cartridge Components
• Primer - volatile compound that ignites
when struck by the gun’s firing pin.
– detonates the propellant in the cartridge.
• Propellant = gunpowder
– forms gases, which push the bullet out of

the cartridge and the gun barrel.

• The casing is left behind and does not

propel with the bullet.

General Types of Ammunition

1. Dummy Model- a replica of a genuine cartridge, a type of cartridge which merely resembles
the genuine.
2. Blank Ammunition- a type of cartridge without a bullet, containing gunpowder that is
designed to generate a loud noise to indicate firing. Usually used for Ceremony, film making,
theatrical performance or trainings.
3. Live Ammunition- this term is application for complete unit of unfired cartridge.
Types of Ammunition According to the Location of the Primer
a. Pin Fire- a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap is concealed in the cartridge case and
has a pin resting upon, the pin protrudes through the side of the case.
Introduced to the United Kingdom at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851 by Lefaucheux,
the pinfire weapon was one of the earliest true breech - loading weapons using a self -
contained cartridge in which the propellant, missile and primer were all held together in a
brass case. In this system, the percussion cup was inside the cartridge case whilst a pin,
which rested on the percussion cup, protruded through the side of the cartridge case.
Striking the pin with the weapons hammer drove the pin into the priming compound
causing it to detonate and so ignite the main propellant charge.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

a. Rim Fire- a type of cartridge in which the primer is located at the hollow rim of the case, it
can be fired by the firing pin hitting the rim (cavity rim). Cartridge with a thin - walled base
flange containing the priming compound.
b. Center Fire-a type of cartridge in which the primer is located at the center of the base of the
cartridge case, the priming mixture exploded by the impact of the firing pin on the primer cap.
Cartridge with a cup containing the priming composition located in a cavity in the center of
the cartridge head.
In rimfire ammunition, the explosive priming compound is spun into the hollow rim of the
cartridge case. •
In center fire ammunition, there is a small cup, called a primer cap, containing the priming
compound. This priming cap is inserted into a recess in the center of the cartridge case.
In percussion weapons, there is a small cup, very similar to the primer cap, which contains
the priming compound and fits onto a hollow nipple screwed into the breech end of the
barrel.

AMMUNITION COMPONENTS
- A live cartridge case has a live, unfired, primer, but there is no propellant or bullet present.

Manufacturing Process of Ammunition

1. Material Selection

• Casings: Typically made from brass, steel, or aluminum for durability and corrosion resistance.
• Projectiles (Bullets): Usually made from lead, with optional copper or steel jackets for strength and
reduced barrel wear.
• Propellant: Smokeless powder or black powder is used to generate the explosive force.
• Primers: Small metal cups filled with impact-sensitive compounds, such as lead styphnate, are used
to ignite the propellant.

2. Case Formation

• Drawing and Shaping: Brass sheets are drawn into cup-like shapes, then stretched and trimmed into
casings.
• Annealing: The casings are heated to relieve stress and ensure durability.
• Primer Pocket Formation: The base of the casing is shaped to hold the primer securely.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

3. Bullet Manufacturing

• Casting: Lead bullets are cast into molds for desired shapes and weights.
• Jacket Formation: Copper or steel jackets are created and pressed around the lead core for added
durability.
• Sizing and Shaping: Bullets are precision-shaped to ensure they fit the barrel and achieve consistent
ballistic performance.

4. Propellant Filling

• A precise amount of propellant powder is added to each casing, depending on the desired velocity
and pressure for the caliber.

5. Assembly

• Bullet Seating: The bullet is pressed into the open end of the casing.
• Crimping: The casing is slightly compressed around the bullet to ensure a tight fit and prevent the
bullet from dislodging.
• Primer Insertion: Primers are inserted into the primer pocket at the base of the casing.

6. Quality Control

• Each round undergoes strict inspection for dimensions, weight, and functionality. Defective rounds
are discarded.

7. Packaging

• Ammunition is labeled, boxed, and prepared for distribution. Packaging includes information on
caliber, bullet type, and intended use (e.g., hunting, self-defense).

Identification of Ammunition Calibers and Markings

Forensic scientists and investigators identify ammunition through visual and microscopic examination of key
features:

1. Caliber Identification

• Definition: Caliber refers to the internal diameter of a firearm barrel and the corresponding
diameter of the bullet.
• Common Calibers: Examples include .22, 9mm, .45 ACP, and .308.
• Measurement: Measured in inches (e.g., .45) or millimeters (e.g., 9mm).

2. Headstamp Markings

• Located at the base of the cartridge, headstamps provide information about the manufacturer, caliber,
and sometimes the year of production.
• Example: A 9mm cartridge might have a headstamp reading "WIN 9MM" (Winchester, 9mm).
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

3. Bullet Markings

• Jacketed Bullets: May have identifying marks, such as the manufacturer’s logo or a specific design
feature.
• Wadcutter and Hollow Points: Easily identified by their flat or hollowed tips, designed for specific
applications (e.g., target shooting, self-defense).

4. Firing Pin Impressions

• Examination of spent casings can reveal unique marks left by the firearm’s firing pin, breech face, and
extractor. These marks help identify the specific firearm used.

5. Rifling Impressions

• Bullets fired from rifled barrels bear unique striations caused by the barrel’s lands and grooves.
These impressions help match bullets to a specific firearm.

6. Use of Databases

• Forensic databases like IBIS and NIBIN store digital images of ammunition casings and bullets,
enabling comparisons across multiple cases.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Course Code
Course Description Forensic Ballistics
Module No. and Title Module 5: Cartridge case/shell/Casing

Cartridge Case
A cartridge case refers to the shell and primer and does not include the bullet; it can be either a
fired cartridge case or a live cartridge case. A live cartridge case has a live, unfired, primer, but there
is no propellant or bullet present. The case holds a bullet, a small amount of exploding primer
powder, and the gunpowder. The cartridge case formed over to hold the components together.

Cartridges cases/shell functions as follows;

 It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer

 It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder

 It prevent the escape of gases to the rear

Parts of a Cartridge Case

a) Base-the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp marking on the
base of the shell/cartridge case which comprises the caliber, manufacturer, and some cases
including the date, trade name, and batch number.

b) Rim- the part of the cartridge case designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge
to the chamber.
c) Extracting grooves- the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic
withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
d) Primer pockets-that part of the cartridge case which provides the means for the primer to
be in place. It hold the primer in place and provide means to prevent the escape of gases and
provide support for the primer anvil.
e) Body- the cylindrical part of the cartridge case which houses the gunpowder.
f) Shoulder-the part of the cartridge case which supports the neck, this is evident in bottle neck
type of cartridges.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

g) Cannelure- the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure
the cartridge case to the chamber and to prevent the bullet from being pushed down inside
the case.
located on the portion of the bullet inside the cartridge case.
A groove round the bearing surface of a bullet for either crimping the mouth of the cartridge
case or to hold bullet lubricant.
h) Neck-the part of the case which is occupied by the bullet.
i) Crimp- the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the case designed to hold the bullet and prevent
it from being pulled out from the cartridge case and Secondly, it is designed to offer resistance
to the bullet out of the neck to ensure the burning of the gunpowder.
j) Vent or Flash Hole-the hole of the bottom of the primer pocket that serves as the passage
way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the gunpowder.

The cartridge case can be subdivided further into five categories according to the configuration of
its base

(i) Rimmed. These have a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case. This flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon in which it is
used. When describing rifle ammunition and the metric method of designating the ammunition is
used, these are often identified by an ‘ R ’after the case length measurement, that is, 7 × 57 mmR. The
vast majority of revolvers are designed for use with rimmed ammunition.

(ii) Semi - rimmed. These have a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge
case and a groove around the case body just in front of the flange. When describing rifle ammunition
and the metric system is used, these are identified by SR in the cartridge designation.

(iii) Rimless. In these, the flange diameter is the same as the case body and there is, for extraction
purposes, a groove around the case body just in front of the flange. There is generally no letter system
to designate this cartridge base type. Self - loading pistols are almost invariably designed for use with
semi - rimmed or rimless ammunition.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

(iv) Rebated. This has an extractor fl ange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case. The
designation used in the metric system is ‘ RB ’ . This type of cartridge case configuration tends to be
reserved for high - powered cannon ammunition.

(v) Belted case. These have a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge. This belt
is for additional strength in high - pressure cartridges. The metric designation is ‘ B ’ . This type of
cartridge case is generally only found in very high - powered rifle cartridges or military cannon
ammunition.

Types of Cartridge Case

Cartridge Case Types Cartridge cases generally come in one of three Shapes:

1. Straight cased, where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length. This type
of cartridge case are usually found on cartridge used in automatic weapon

2. Bottle -necked, where a wide - bodied case is, just before the case mouth, reduced in diameter
to that of the bullet. This permits a very much larger volume of propellant to be used, and
consequently higher velocities to be obtained, than in straight - sided cases. These types of cartridge
are commonly found in ammunitions for rifles.

3. Tapered case, where a wide - based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter along its
length. These tend to be in old European sporting rifle caliber and are seldom encountered. These
types of cartridge case are similar to a flower vase. Usually found in caliber .22 magnum-jet
School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Course Code
Course Description Forensic Ballistics
Module No. and Title Module 6: Bullet

Bullet
Bullets are hard projectiles propelled by a firearm, sling or air gun and is normally made from
metal. Most bullet does not contain explosives, but damages the intended target by tissue or
mechanical disruption through impact or penetration. The term bullet is sometimes erroneously
used to refer to a cartridge, which is the combination of bullet, casing (case or shell), gunpowder
and primer.
"Bullet" is derived from the French word "boulette" which roughly means "little ball". The original
musket bullet was a spherical lead ball two sizes smaller than the bore, wrapped in a loosely-fitted
paper patch which served to hold the bullet in the barrel firmly upon the powder.

The word "bullet" is sometimes erroneously used to refer to a cartridge, which is the combination
of bullet, casing (case or shell), gunpowder and primer. The history of bullets far predates the
history of firearms. Originally, bullets were metallic or stone balls used in a sling as a weapon and
for hunting.

Sling bullets with a winged

thunderbolt engraved on one side and the
inscription “take that” on the other side. Lead, 4th
century BC. From Athens.

A bullet refers to the missile alone. It can

be either a fired bullet or an unfired bullet.
Pellets can be either the individual lead or
steel balls found in shotgun ammunition,
or the lead pellets for use in air weapons.
The term bullet derived from the French
word “boullette” which means a small ball.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Lead slug is also sometimes used to describe air gun pellets, but this is not the correct term for this
type of missile. Shot is another term for the lead or steel balls in shotgun ammunition, that is, lead
shot. This is an acceptable alternative to pellet.

Bullets are the projectile being discharge or propelled from a firearm, it usually comes in a
cartridge case or shell, which contains the bullet, primer and gunpowder. Bullets are composed of a
variety of metals they are molded primarily from lead, a soft and pliable metal other used such as
copper, lead, brass, bronze, steel, aluminum. To harden the components manufacturer used metal
jacket with steel or copper.

Steel-jacketed bullets are coated with copper, a softer metal, so that the harder metal does not
scratch the rifling. The process of Jacketing a bullet increases the man-stopping power of the bullet
upon hitting the target. A hollow-point bullet has a small hole drilled into its nose, causing the
projectile to tear into a sharpedged flower shape when fired. Unlike the Dumdum which is less
penetrating, less lethal round which also expands upon impact. On impact, the lead cracks its hard
metal shell and bows out in a mushroom shape.

Design

 Bullet designs have to solve two primary problems. They must first form a seal with the
gun's bore.

 The worse the seal, the more gas, generated by the rapid combustion of the propellant
charge, leaks past the bullet, reducing the efficiency. The bullet must also engage the rifling
without damaging the gun's bore.

 Bullets must have a surface which will form this seal without causing excessive friction. What
happens to a bullet inside the bore is termed internal ballistics. A bullet must also be
consistent with the next bullet so that shots may be fired precisely.
Materials

 Bullets for black powder, or muzzle loading firearms, were classically molded from pure lead.
This worked well for low speed bullets, fired at velocities of less than 300 m/s (1000 ft/s).

 For slightly higher speed bullets fired in modern firearms, a harder alloy of lead and tin or
typesetter's lead (used to mold Linotype) works very well.

 For even higher speed bullet use, jacketed coated lead bullets are used.

The common element in all of these, lead, is widely used because it is very dense, thereby
providing a high amount of mass — and thus, kinetic energy — for a given volume). Lead is also
cheap, easy to obtain, easy to work, and melts at a low temperature, making it easy to use in
fabricating bullets.

Bullet Caliber
The caliber of a bullet refers to the diameter of the inside of a firearm’s barrel it also matches the
diameter of the bullet, usually expressed in hundredths of an inch (0.22 cal.) or in millimeters (9
mm).
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

General Classification of Bullets

a. Lead Bullet- a type of bullet which are composed of lead or alloy. Simple cast, extruded, swaged,
or otherwise fabricated lead slugs are the simplest form of bullets.
A cup made of harder metal, such as copper, placed at the base of the bullet and called a gas
check, is often used to decrease lead deposits by protecting the rear of the bullet against melting
when fired at higher pressures, but this too does not solve the problem at higher velocities.
b. Jacketed Bullet- a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy to
prevent the lead from fouling of the barrel and usually used in pistols and other high powered
guns. Jacketed bullets are used for a variety of reasons, that is, to grip the rifling more in high -
velocity bullets, to prevent bullet damage and feeding jams in weapons with a self - loading
mechanism and to prevent bullet break up in hunting ammunition when used on heavy or thick -
skinned game.
These are bullets intended for even higher-velocity applications generally have a lead core
that is jacketed or plated with cupronickel, copper alloys, or steel; a thin layer of harder metal
protects the softer lead core when the bullet is passing through the barrel and during flight,
which allows delivering the bullet intact to the target. There, the heavy lead core delivers its
kinetic energy to the target.

Bullet Shapes

"Round-nose" - end of the bullet is blunted for maximum

penetration.

"Hollow-point" - a hole in the bullet creates more damage, inhibits

penetration, and spreads or mushrooms on impact.

"Jacketed" - soft lead is surrounded by another metal, usually

copper, that allows the bullet to penetrate a target more easily.

"Wadcutter" - front of the bullet is flattened o used exclusively as a

practice load o rips a hole in target paper which is visible by the
shooter.

Types of Bullet According to their Maximum Effect on their Target

1. Ball Bullet- a type of bullet having soft cores inside a jacket and designed for used against
personnel or general used.
2. Armored Piercing – a type of bullet designed to penetrate light steel armor, it have a
hardened steel cores and are designed to be fired against vehicles and other armored
targets. These are type of ammunition designed to penetrate armor.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Jacketed designs where the core material is a very hard, high-density metal such as tungsten,
tungsten carbide, depleted uranium, or steel. A pointed tip is often used, but a flat tip on the
penetrator portion is generally more effective.
Armor-piercing ammunition is used to penetrate hardened armored targets such as
ballistic vests, vehicle armor, concrete, tanks, and other defenses, depending on the caliber
of the firearms. Armor-piercing ammunition consists of a penetrator constructed of
hardened steel, tungsten carbide, or depleted uranium, enclosed within a softer jacket, such
as copper or aluminium. Armor-piercing ammunition can range from rifle- and pistol-
caliber rounds all the way up to tank rounds.

1 Light weight ballistic cap

2 Steel alloy piercing shell
3 Desensitised bursting charge (TNT, Trinitrophenol, RDX...)
4 Fuze (set with delay to explode inside the target)
5 Bourrelet (front) and driving band (rear)
These have a hollow back, filled with a flare material. Usually this is a mixture of magnesium
perchlorate, and strontium salts to yield a bright red color, although other materials
providing other colors have also sometimes been used.

3. Explosive Bullet (fragmentary)- a type of bullet which contained a charge of explosives that
detonates on impact usually limited to 20 mm and above.

This type of projectile is designed to explode upon hitting a hard surface, preferably the bone
of the intended target. Not to be mistaken for cannon rounds or grenade with fuze devices,
these bullets have only a cavity filled with a small amount of low explosive depending on the
velocity and deformation upon impact to detonate.

4. Incendiary Bullet- a type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target, generally designed
for used by an aircraft armament to ignite fuel tanks. These bullets are made with an explosive
or flammable mixture in the tip that is designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent
is to ignite fuel or munitions in the target area, thereby adding to the destructive power of the
bullet itself.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

5. Tracer Bullet- a type of military bullet which is capable of leaving a visible mark or traces
while in flight giving the gunner a chance to see its path while shooting and make adjustments
in the event of a miss.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Other types of Bullet

Blank Bullet
These are bullet made of Wax, paper, plastic, and other materials used to simulate live gunfire
and are intended only to hold the powder in a blank cartridge and to produce noise.
The 'bullet' may be captured in a purpose-designed device or it may be allowed to expend what
little energy it has in the air. Some blank cartridges are crimped or closed at the end and do not
contain any bullet.

Dumdum bullet
Is a bullet designed to expand on impact, increasing in diameter to limit penetration and/or
produce a larger diameter wound. There are many expanding bullet designs, though the most
commonly encountered are the hollow point bullet and the soft point bullet.
The use of the term "Dum-dum", applied to expanding bullets other than the early .303 designs, is
considered slang.[3] Manufacturers have many terms to describe the particular construction of the
various types of expanding bullets, though most fall into the category of soft point or hollow point
designs.
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

Grenade launcher cartridges are only encountered in military rifle calibers and, as the name
indicates, are designed for the discharge of a grenade from a normal service rifle. The case
mouth is invariably crimped, and some color code, for example, the case painted black,
distinguishes this type of cartridge from standard blank ammunition.
Caseless ammunition consists of a bullet with the propellant formed around the bullet as a single
solid piece, and there is no cartridge case. The primer is generally located at the rear of the
propellant and is not enclosed in any metallic cup. This type of ammunition has not found any real
favor due to problems with making the propellant strong enough to withstand rough treatment.
Tear - gas cartridges are the same as blank ammunition except they contain a small quantity of a
lachrymatory/sternutatory substance which is either chloracetophenone( CN ) gas or o -
chlorobenzalmalonitrile (CS) gas. In tear - gas ammunition, the case mouth is never crimped, but is
closed either with a card disc, wax plug or plastic cover which is invariably red or yellow in color.
The most common caliber of tear - gas ammunition encountered is 8 mm. This is intended for use in
small self - loading pistols specifically designed for the discharge of this type of ammunition. Tear -
gas ammunition of 0.22 ″ caliber is also quite common, but this is generally intended for use in
revolvers. Cartridges for use in 8 mm ‘ gas guns ’have also been encountered which were loaded
with talcum powder of various colors (for theatrical purposes), scent (for room freshening) and
even fly killer!

Snap caps are for the practice of firing a weapon without damaging the firing pin and lock
mechanism by fi ring it without a cartridge case in place. This is generally called dry firing ’ . Snap
caps usually have a piece of rubber or hard plastic in place of the primer, and the case is chromium -
or nickel - plated for identification purposes. Although snap caps are available in all calibers, the
most commonly encountered are in shotgun calibers.

Handgun Bullets
FMJ (Full Metal Jacket)

Lead core is enclosed by a strong metal jacket on this non-expanding, deeppenetrating,

general-purpose bullet. Provides smooth, reliable feeding in all types of semi-auto handguns.

(Bullet) JHP (Jacketed Hollow Point)

 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

The exposed lead at the tip of the jacketed hollow point rapidly initiates uniform, controlled
expansion that progresses to the depth of the hollow point cavity. Penetration is also
controlled for maximum energy transfer to the target, assuring its suitability as a hunting
bullet. Excellent accuracy and bullet integrity.

SJHP (Semi-Jacketed Hollow Point)

With more exposed lead at the tip, the SJHP expands a little more rapidly than a jacketed
hollow point bullet. Penetration is also controlled for maximum energy transfer to the
target, assuring its suitability as a hunting bullet. Excellent accuracy and bullet integrity.
FMC (Full Metal Case, Truncated Cone)

The lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a light copper jacket, which has a cone shape and a
flat or cupped point. The results is less expansion than a JHP bullet, more than an FMJ, and
deeper penetration than an SP bullet. The shape of this bullet also has the effect of reducing
ricochet and has shown increased reliability in penetrating auto glass compared to FMJ.
SP (Soft Point)

Exposed lead soft point initiates reliable expansion, provides deeper penetration than hollow
point bullets. Precisely engineered copper jacket and swaged lead core provides the
necessary concentricity and balance required for top-level accuracy.
LWC (Lead Wadcutter)

The full wadcutter profile of this solid lead bullet cuts clean signature in paper targets for
precise scoring. Consistent accuracy results from formation by swaging process, which
eliminates balance-destroying voids often found in cast bullets. Excellent choice for
competitive shooters.
LSWC (Lead Semi-Wadcutter) Solid

lead bullet with semi-pointed nose. Formed by swaging process with sharp shoulder for clean
hole punching in paper targets. Good choice for target or general purpose shooting.
RNL (Round Nosed Lead)

Solid lead bullet with rounded ogive for down-range accuracy. Hard-hitting, economical,
general purpose bullet for all revolvers.
Rifle Bullets

FMJ (Full Metal Jacket)

The lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a heavy copper jacket, which results in little or no
expansion and deep penetration. Not recommended for hunting, the primary uses of the FMJ
are military and target shooting.
FMJBT (Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail)
 School of Criminology
Forensic Ballistics

The lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a heavy copper jacket, which results in little or no
expansion and deep penetration. Boat tail heel further reduces drag to improve downrange
velocity.
HPBT (Hollow Point Boat Tail)
Extremely accurate hollow point bullet with pointed, aerodynamic design. Boat tail heel
further reduces drag to improve downrange velocity. Precision balance and exceptional
concentricity greatly increase bullet stability to assure superb accuracy.
SP (Soft Point)

Exposed lead tip on this bullet and broader point diameter provides rapid, controlled
expansion at somewhat lower velocities. Broad wound channel results from expansion up to
200% of original bullet diameter.
Shotgun

Prepared by: Reviewed by: Recommending Approval: Approved:

Ariel Y. Leonin Virgo C. Lopez

Faculty [Dean,School] Director for Curriculum VP for Academics
& Instruction