FORENSIC BALLISTICS

(Firearms Identification)
Medico Legal Div.
Chemistry Div.

Firearms Identification Div.

Questioned Doc. Div.

Photography Div.

Polygraph Div.
Physical Identification Div.

Fingerprint Div.
Were
these

Cartridge cases

Bullets
fired
from
these?

Guns
Ballistics can
tell…

Questioned Standard Questioned Standard

Definitions:
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
– is the SCIENCE of FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION by means o
the AMMUNTION FIRED THROUGH THEM.

SCIENCE
- is a systematized
knowledge based on
nature and formulated
truth, careful to
observation
experimentation and
researched.
Ballistics Defined…..

-Generally, is the Science of Motion of Projectiles.

 Science

- Systematic body of
knowledge

- Using scientific
instrument

Bullet Comparison Microscope

Motion

-refers to movement or

mobility of projectiles.

This includes:

- Direct

- Rotary

- Translational
Projectile

- refers to metallic &

non-metallic object

propelled through the

firearm.
Ballistics Defined…

- It is the science of mechanics that deals with the motion,

behavior, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets,
gravity bombs, rockets, or the like.

- The science or art of designing and accelerating

projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.
Ballistics Defined…

-Technically, it refers to the science of firearms

identification.

-Legally, it is the microscopic examination of fired

cartridge cases and bullets together with the recording
and presentation by means of photography of what is
revealed by the microscope.
Origin of Ballistics

The word “Ballistics”

originated from the Greek word
“Ballo” “Ballein” which means “to
throw” and from the Roman war
machine, Ballista which is
machine used to hurl a stone.
 Branches of Ballistics

A. Interior Ballistics

A. B. Exterior Ballistics

C. Terminal Ballistics

D. Forensic Ballistics
A. Interior Ballistics
Refers to the properties and
attributes of the projectile (bullet) while
still inside the gun. Extends from
“breech” to the “muzzle” of the gun.

The study of the processes

originally accelerating the projectile, for
example the passage of a bullet through
the barrel of a rifle.
This include the following:
Firing pin hitting the primer
Ignition of the priming mixture
Combustion of the gunpowder
Expansion of the heated gas
Pressure developed
Energy generated
Recoil of the gun
Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
Engravings of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
 Cartridge Parts and How it Works

Cartridge Case
Bullet
Primer Gun Powder
B. Exterior Ballistics
External ballistics, the study of the passage of the
projectile through space or the air.
Refers to the attributes and movements of the projectile
(bullet) after it has left the gun muzzle. Study of a bullet in
flight from time it leaves the barrel until it reaches to the target.
This includes the following:
Muzzle Blast
Muzzle Energy
Trajectory

Range
Effective(accurate)
Maximum
Velocity
Air resistance
Pull of gravity
Penetration
Gyroscopy
The stable rotating motion of the bullet during its
flight from the muzzle towards the target.
Yaw
The wobbling motion of the bullet due to the uneven
pressure applied to one side to the other side.
Unstable rotating motion of the bullet while in flight.
Niccolo Fontana (TARTAGLIA)

Gave the first systematic treatment of the BALLISTICS

of gunnery in his Nuovo Scienzia, published in 1537.

The theory of Exterior Ballistics was rapidly developed

early in the 18th century.

Galileo Galilie, Isaac Newton, Leibniz

Established the principles of dynamics and the methods

of the calculus which was purely mathematics but no
immediate effect in practical gunnery because no acceptably
accurate was existed to measure the muzzle velocity of any
firearm.
Cassini (Astronomer)

Who first suggested to device an accurate method in

measuring the muzzle velocity of the firearm in 1707.

Benjamin Robins (Englishman)

Who was one of the first to state sound ballistics

theories in his new principles of Gunnery in 1742.
Father of the Modern Gunnery

Ballistics Pendulum

The instrument use to measure the muzzle velocity of

any firearm.
C. Terminal Ballistics

Refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile on

the target.
Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a
projectile with its target, whether that be flesh (for a hunting
bullet), steel (for an anti-tank round), or even furnace slag (for
an industrial slag disruptor).
This includes the following:

Terminal accuracy

Terminal energy

Terminal velocity

Terminal penetration
D. Forensic Ballistics

Refers to firearms identification and investigation

by means of ammunitions fired through the firearm.
It involves analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to
determine the type.
Separately from ballistics information,
firearm and tool mark examinations involve analyzing
firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to
establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the
commission of a crime.

In the field of forensic science, Forensic Ballistics is

the science of analyzing firearm usage in crimes.
Forensic…
The word “Forensic” as applied to ballistics, or to any
other subject, suggests a relationship to courts of justice
and legal proceedings and the term was derived from the
Latin word “forum” or “public discussion”

Ballistic fingerprinting…
Identification of the gun that fired a bullet from an
analysis of the unique marks that every gun makes on the
bullet it fires and on the shell ejected from it'

A firearm, being harder than a bullet and cartridge

case. Every time you fire a cartridge on it, its Signature and
Thumbmark (Fingerprint) leaves on its fired bullets and
cartridge cases.
Impressed marks – Direct pressure contac
Striated marks – Sliding contact
Firearms Identification

A discipline mainly concerned with determining

whether a bullet or cartridge case was fired by a
particular weapon.
Division of forensic ballistics

1. Field Investigations

2. Technical Examinations of Ballistics Exhibits

3. Legal Proceedings/Court Trial

1. Field Investigations

Conducted by the first officer in the case in the field

when they investigate a case or cases wherein firearms
have been used.

It concern mostly on:

a. Recognition d. Preservation

b. Collection e. Transmittal

c. Marking
a. Recognition

It is imperative on the part of every

police investigator to identify properly
those physical evidences that might have
come out from the use of firearms.
The success of the case will depend
heavily on how the investigator conducts
himself in handling this ballistics exhibits in
the “proper time” and the “proper place”.
b. Collection

The process of collecting pieces of evidences at the

scene of the crime.
When collecting physical evidences, the officer or
investigator should collect all articles, which are, or may be
in some future date, be of value as evidence.

Examples:
a. firearms h. magazine
b. fired bullets i. holster
c. fired cartridge cases j. allied matters
d. bullet fragments
e. Wads
f. pellets
METHODS OF a. Strip Method
SEARCH FOR
BALLISTICS Applicable when the shooting
EXHIBITS incident took place in a small closed
area.
b. Double Strip Method

Applicable when the shooting

incident took place in a bigger area.
c. Spiral Method

The searchers follow

each other in the path of a
“spiral”, beginning from the
outside and then spiraling in
toward the center.
d. Wheel Method

The searchers
gather at the center and
proceed in outward radii
and spokes.
This procedure
should be followed or
repeated several times
depending on the size of
the area.
.

e. Zone Method

The area is divided in zones,

and in each zone any one of the above
four methods may be used.
This is practically applicable to
an outdoor shooting incident.
 .

When a firearm…

is found at the scene of the crime, the investigator

should take note of the following pertinent facts or features
about the firearm:

a. Type of firearm
b. Caliber
c. Serial Number
d. Load in the cylinder and magazine
e. Position of firearm relative to the victim at the scene
f. Other distinct or significant features
.

When a bullet…

is found at the scene of the crime, the following

should be noted down:

a. Type
b. Caliber
c. Shape
d. Place and date of recovery
.

When a cartridge case…

is found at the scene of the crime, the following

should be noted down:

a. Number of case (shells), in order of recover

b. Caliber
c. Trademark or brand
d. Place and date of recovery
c.. Marking

Marking of physical evidences is

very significant on the part of the
investigator that he can readily identify
these evidences during the trial of the
case in court at the witness stand. The
field investigator can do this by the use of
STYLUS.
Steps to be followed when marking physical evidence

1. Record the mark used, and the position of the marks

present on the object.
2. Use a distinct mark such as “initials” of the recovering
Officer or the victim.
3. Do not use “X” for marking.
4. Record the serial number or other distinctive marks
present on the object.
5. Whenever possible, mark the object itself, taking care
not to damage or alter it.
6. Always mark the container in which the object is placed
even if the object itself is already mark.
7. When tags are used, mark corresponding entry in the
tag and it attached securely to the object.
How and Where to Mark
Ballistics Exhibits

Firearm:

The suspected firearm, besides noting down its

pertinent features in connection with the collection of the
physical evidences, should be marked with the initials of
the recovering officer, date of recovery, order or manner of
recovery on the following parts:
 Pistol…

Pistol
Barrel
Frame or
Receiver

Slide
 Revolver…

Frame
Barrel

Cylinder
 Rifle…

Receiver

1. Lower
Barrel
2. Upper

Bolt
Fired bullets…

Should be marked with the initials of

the recovering officer, date of recovery, order
or manner of recovery on the following parts:

a. Nose (ogive) or anterior

b. Base
Fired cartridge case…

Similarly with the

fired bullets, fired shell
should be marked with the
recovering officer, date of
recovery, order or manner of
recovery on the following
parts:

a. Inside and or outside,

near the open mouth

b. Body of the shell

d. Preservation

The investigating officer should exercise care

and resourcefulness in securing wrapping or packaging
materials that can be used to preserve physical evidences.
He should always bear in mind the value of
preserving the evidentiary value of the evidences.
Materials Ideal for Packaging
Physical Evidences:

a. matchbox
b. cotton
c. cleansing tissue
d. shoe box
e. brown envelopes
f. plastic container
g. plastic pocket
h. plastic wrapper
i. Small transparent bottle
Preserved Evidence
Firearms
Preserved Evidence
Bullets and shell
e. Transmittal

The investigating officer has to transmit these

ballistics exhibits to their respective departments and
submit the same to the duty desk officer or to the
duly designated receiving officer in their office.
The officer on the case must be duly aware of this
Chain of custody of physical evidence.
 2. Technical Examinations of Ballistics Exhibits

The job performed by the firearm examiners in the

laboratory.
a. Marking of physical evidences
b. Test firing of evidence firearms
c. Photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope
d. Preparation of comparative charts
e. Making of reports on the findings and observations
 a. Marking of physical
evidences

Physical evidence bullets, cartridge cases, and

suspected firearms once submitted by the requesting party
will be physically examined to determine its markings or initial
made by investigator for identification purposes.
If no identifying marks found, the firearm examiner will
before anything affixed his own markings or initials derived
from the requesting party, victim, or suspect.
Marked Firearms for
Identification
Marked Bullet and Shell for
Identification
b. Test firing of
evidence firearms

The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box to

obtain test bullets and test cartridge cases for comparison with
the evidence bullets and evidence cartridge cases
respectively.
 Before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of
the case and on the nose portion of the bullet with a letter “T”
(Test) followed by the last two digits of the Serial Number of
the firearm and the order of the test firing to be made (e.g. T-
38-1, T-38-2, T-38-3) to distinguish the number 1 test from the
number 2 or 3,as the case may be.
c. Photomicrography (bullet
comparison microscope)

After the recovery of the

test bullets and test cartridge
cases, they will be compared with
the evidence bullets and evidence
cartridge cases under the bullet
comparison microscope in “Juxta
Position” to determine whether or
not they have congruent striations
or impressions or the same
individual characteristics.
 Evidence Specimen (Question)
Left Objective

Evidence bullets
Are those recovered from the scene of the
crime when the field investigation is to be conducted.

Evidence cartridge cases

Are those recovered from the crime scene or from the
cylinder or chamber of the firearm with the markings on the
base portion that is in contact with the breechblock of the
firearm which closes the rear portion of the chamber in firing
position.
Test Fired Specimen (Standard)
Right Objective

Test bullets
Are those recovered from the bullet recovery box for
comparison with the evidence bullets under the bullet
comparison microscope.

Test cartridge cases

Are those recovered after test firing of a suspected
firearm for comparison with the fired or evidence cartridge
cases under the bullet comparison microscope.
“JUXTA POSITION”

That is the two objects – Evidence Test Fired

evidence bullet or shell and test
bullet or shell are examined and
compared:

At the same level

At the same direction
At the same magnification
At the same image
At the same level or plane
 Photomicrography Hairline structure
(Breechface Marks)
Positive identification
Photomicrograph
of the evidence and test
fired shell under the bullet
comparison microscope.

The hairline
structure is running from 12
to 6 o’ clock position to
divide the evidence and test
specimen.

The congruency of
the breech face markings
denotes that the two shells
were fired from one and the
same firearm.

evidence test
Ejector markings
Hairline structure

Positive identification

Evidence Test Evidence Test

striations impressions
 Photomicrography
(Bullets)
. Hairline structure

Photomicrograph of Positive identification

the evidence and
test fired bullets
showing congruency
of the striations on
the land marks on
the bearing portion
to signify that the
two specimen fired
from one and the
same firearm.

Congruent striations Evidence Standard

d. Preparation of comparative
charts…
. While the microscopic examination of all physical
evidences is being conducted, it is imperative for the firearm
examiner to photograph both specimen (evidence and test
fired). These photographs obtained will be used in court
presentation in corroboration with the statement of firearm
examiner upon subpoenaed by the court to give his
testimony regarding the result of the laboratory examinations.

This comparative chart for the evidence specimen and

test fired specimen viewed and examined simultaneously
under the bullet comparison microscope will serve as a guide
for the jury on how the examiner derive to a certain
conclusion that the evidence specimen were or were not fired
or ejected from a particular firearm.
Comparative Chart

Striations on bullets bearing portion Ejector marks

Ejector marks
Breechface marks
3. Legal Proceedings/Court Trial

Wherein the Ballistics Report of the firearm examiner

and the Ballistics Exhibits such as; firearms, fired bullets,
fired cartridge cases and allied matters are presented during
the trial of the case in a court of justice.
It also includes the presentation of the Ballistics Expert,
to give testimony regarding his finding/conclusion.
D.Shots Ballistics - This refers to the study of shots from
smooth bore firearms like shotguns and muskets.

Shotgun – has a smooth bore, fire multiple pellets and also

it can fire a single slug.

Gauge – refers to the measure of caliber of shotgun,

number of lead pellets or balls of the given bore diameter
required to make up one pound weight.

Choke - The degree of constriction on the end

portion of the shotgun barrel for the purpose of controlling
the spread of the shots/pellets after leaving the barrel. That
is the diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than
the diameter of the bore of the rest of the barrel.

True cylinder – when the diameter of the barrel is the same

throughout the bore.
Dram Equivalent – The measurement or the amount of
gunpowder in a shotshell.

Daniel Myron LeFever – Credited with the invention of

hammerless shotgun and introduced the first hammerless
shotgun in 1878. This gun was cocked with the external
cocking levers on the side of the breech. He patents the first
truly automatic hammerless shotgun in 1883.

Combination Gun – A type of break action shotgun in which

it consist of two barrels that is an over and under design with
one shotgun barrel and one rifle barrel.

Drilling Gun – Class of break action guns which contain

three barrels, usually two shotgun barrels of the same gauge
and a rifle barrel. The most common arrangement was a side
by side shotgun with the rifle barrel below and centered.
Cape Guns – A shotgun that has side by side variation or
construction of barrel.

Winchester – He was credited as the inventor of the

earliest successful repeating shotgun being the lever-action
Winchester M1887 1887 at the behest of the Winchester
Repeating Arms Company.

Rodolfo Cosmi – He produced the first working prototype

of his semi-automatic shotgun in 1925, which had an 8
round magazine located in the stock. While it reloaded
automatically after each shot like a semi-automatic it had a
break action to load the first shell.
Shotgun Shell - is a single unit of ammunition for shotgun.
Projectile used in a shotgun Pellets
shell

a. Shots or Pellets

1. Buck Shots

These are
comparatively large lead
balls formed in molds,
without hardeners alloyed
with the lead.

2. Drop shots or Bird Shots

These are smaller lead balls which is formed by pouring molten lead
alloy through perforated pans of selected sizes located at the top of a shot
tower.
b. Rifle Slug

cylindrical spherical
GAUGES BORE DIAMETER

4 .935
8 .835
10 .775
12 .729
16 .662
20 .615
28 .550
.410 not a true gauge .410
Shotgun Pattern Testing - a test for shotgun to determine
the approximate muzzle - target distance by dispersed
pellets or shots through the wound on the target.

1. Close Shotgun
Wound
The shots leaves
the gun as a solid mass
at a velocity of about
110 ft./sec. From 1 to 3
ft., more or less irregular
wound about 11/2 to 2
inches in diameter will
be produced.
 Scattered pellets around
2. Intermediate main wound
Shotgun Wound
This is the wound
produced if the shotgun
muzzle is beyond the range
of 3 ft., wherein the shots
begin to spread out and at 4
ft., the wound will appear as
a central hole with small
perforations around it.
Main wound
3. Distant Shotgun
Wound
At ranges over 4ft.,
the shots continues to spread
out and produces a mass of
small perforations with no
central wound.
Note: An approximation
of the range can be
obtained by measuring
in inches the diameter
of the wound subtracting
1, thus arriving at the
range in yards.

Wads sometimes can be seen at a distance of 5 to 8 yards or

more from the place of firing in the approximate direction of fire.
E. Wound Ballistics
This refers to the study of the projectile penetration
on tissues.

Characteristics
Entry wound are generally clean, round holes slightly smaller
than the bullets which caused them. The bullet will slowed by the
passage through the body and exits head on, the wound will be smaller
than the entry, but if it leaves the body at an irregular angle, or takes
pieces of bone with it, the exit wound will be large.

Tissue Quake
The damage of the tissue around the bullets’ path
produced by a shock wave when the bullet travels through
the body of the victim.
Gunshots Holes or Wounds
Categories
Contact gunshot wounds may
have a muzzle impression
1. Contact wound around the wound.

The muzzle point is

directly touching the target
within an inch or two
when the gun is fired.
2. Close Range

When the gun is fired, Close gunshot wounds will

the muzzle point is near have dense pattern of gunshot
residue around wound.
closely at the target a matter
of 6” to 2 ft.
3. Distant
Skin may stretch beyond its
limits and tear around bullet
Over 2 or 3 wound.
or a vast range or
gap between the
muzzle and the
target and brings
great problems to
the analyst in
determining the
approximate
muzzle to target
distance.
 Forensic Ballistics Timeline

1835
The first firearms evidence identification can be traced
back to England when the unique markings on a bullet taken
from a victim were matched with a bullet mold belonging to the
suspect.

1889
Alexandre Lacassagne, professor of forensic
medicine at the University of Lyons, France, was the first to try
to individualized bullets to a gun barrel. His comparisons at
the time were based simply on the numbers of lands and
grooves.
1898
Paul Jesrich, forensic chemist working in Berlin,
Germany, took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare,
and subsequently individualize the minutiae.

1902
The first court case involving firearms evidence took
place when a specific gun was proven to be the murder
weapon. The expert in the case, Oliver Wendell Holmes, had
read about firearm identification, and had a gunsmith test-
fire the alleged murder weapon into a wad of cotton wool. A
magnifying glass was used to match the bullet from the
victim with the test bullet.
1910
Victor Balthazard, professor of forensic medicine at
the Sorbonne, used photographic enlargements of bullets and
cartridge cases to determine weapon type and was among
the first to attempt to individualize bullet to a weapon.

1920
Charles E. Waite, was the first to catalog
manufacturing data about weapons.

1920’s
Calvin Goddard, with Charles E. Waite, Phillip O.
Gravelle, John H. Fisher, perfected the comparison
microscope for use in bullet comparison.
 Calvin Goddard, physician and ex-army officer,
acquired data from all known gun manufacturers in order to
develop a comprehensive database. With his partner,
Charles Waite, he catalogued the results of test-firings from
every type of handgun made by 12 manufacturers.

1925
Goddard wrote an article for the Army Ordnance titled
"Forensic Ballistics" in which he described the use of the
comparison microscope regarding firearms investigations. He
is generally credited with the conception of the term
"forensic ballistics," though he later admitted it to be an
inadequate name for the science.
1926
The case of Sacco-Vanzetti, which took place in
Bridgewater, Massachusettes, was responsible for
popularizing the use of the comparison microscope for bullet
comparison. Calvin Goddard’s conclusion were upheld when
the evidence was reexamined in 1961.

1929
The St. Valentine's Day Massacre led to the opening
of the first independent scientific crime detection laboratory
in the United States.
1974
The detection of gunshot residue (GSR) using electron
microscopy with electron dispersive X-ray Technology.

1991
Wals Automation Inc. in Montreal, launched the
development of an automated imaging system called The
Integrated Ballistics Identification System for comparison
of the marks left on fired bullets, cartridge cases, and shell
casing. This system was subsequently developed for the US
market in collaboration with the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, and Firearms.
1992
The FBI contracted with Mnemonic Systems to
developed Drugfire, and automated imaging system to
compare marks left on cartridge cases and shell casings.
The ability to compare fired bullets are subsequently
added.

1999
A memorandum of understanding is signed between
the FBI and ATF, allowing the use of the National
Integrated Ballistics Network (NIBIN), to facilitate
exchange of firearms data between Drugfire and IBIS.
FIREARMS
Firearms or Arms

Legal Definition(Sec. 877 RAC)…

Includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,

revolvers and other deadly weapons from which the bullet
balls, shots, shells, or other missiles may be discharged by
means of gunpowder or other explosives.

The term also includes air rifles and air pistols, except
those that are in small in caliber and usually used as toys under
the provision of EO No. 712 dated 28 July 1981.
Note: The barrel of every firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes.

Why barrel is complete firearm?

Because once you insert a cartridge correspond to

the caliber of the barrel & strike the primer with any pointed
hard object, the tendency is to explode, & once it explode,
the bullet will pass through a rifled barrel & will attain its
highest momentum & stability in flight in penetrating power.
Technical Definition…

A firearm is an instrument used for the

propulsion of projectiles by means of the expansive
force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
Origin of firearms

In 13th century, firearms was developed following the

invention of gunpowder in Western Europe.

1247 – Earliest recorded of firearms in warfare was an attack in

Seville, Spain.

1346 – History showed that cannons were used by King

Edward III of England in Crecy.

1453 – Mohammed II of Turkey used cannons in his famous

conquest of Constantinople
Men behind firearms

Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D

Father of Modern Ballistics, OS, US Army

Horace Smith
Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson and
pioneered the making of the breech loading rifles.

Daniel B. Wesson
An associate or partner of Smith in revolver
making.

John M. Browning
Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the
breech loading shot rifle.
John T. Thompson
Thompson Submachine Gun (SMG) 1920

Gordon Ingram
Prototype Ingram sub-machinegun1940.

David “Carbine” Williams

” Carbine” maker

Alexander “John” Forsyth

Father of the “percussion ignition”

Elisha King Root

Designed the machinery for making Colt firearms

Eliphalet Remington
One of the first rifle makers
 Samuel Colt (1814-1862)
Born on July 1814, produced the first practical revolver

John C. Garand
Born in 1888 in Quebec Semi-Automatic US Rifle,
Caliber .30

Richard J. Gatling
Born in North Carolina in 1888, developed the hand-
wranked machinegun (Duver Gatling)

Oliver F. Winchester
One of the earliest rifles and pistols makers

Eugene Stoner
(Chief Engineer) AR15/M16 Armalite Rifle
George Lugger
Born in Austria in 1849, he designed the 9mm
Parabellum Cartridge

Uziel Gal
invented the Uzi submachine gun (1950)

Mikhail Kalasnikov
invented the AK 47.
Important Dates in Firearm history

1313 (Gunpowder as a propellant)

1350 (Small Arms)

1498 (Riflings)

1575 (Cartridge)

1807 (Percussion System)

1835 (Samuel Colt patented the first practical revolver)

1836 (Pinfire Cartridge) LE FAUCHEUX

1845 (Rimfire Cartridge) In France, FLOBERT

1858 (Center-fire Cartridge) Morse cartridge

1884 (Automatic Machine Gun) – HIRAM MAXIM

1885 (Smokeless Powder) In France, VIEILLE

1950 (Armalite) Charles Dorchester and George Sullivan

History of the First Firearm
Firelock
Developed in the 14th century as a simple smoothed bore tube of iron,
closed at breech end except for an opening called a touchhole and set into a
rounded piece of wood for holding under the arm. The tuber was loaded shot
and powder and the fired by inserting a heated wire into the touchhole.

Matchlock
Developed in 15th century which was the same as that of firelock,
except that the slow match was clamped on the top of the device called
serpentine-an S shaped metal pivoted to the center. A spring device dropped a
lighted match directly into the gun powder.
Wheel Lock
Developed at about 1515 which is consisted of a spring-driven wheel
which when released of the trigger brought a peace of iron pyrite into contact
with a rotating steel wheel and the resulting spark ignited the gunpowder.
Flintlock
Developed from the end of 17th century to the middle of 19th century.
The striker plate was L shaped, the bottom limb of the L was used as a cover
for the priming pan to protect the powder from moisture until the upper limb was
struck by the flint of the hammer. But the flintlock superseded by the
percussion cap.
Main Types of Firearms (Caliber of the Projectiles Propelled)

1. Artillery
Types of firearms that propel projectiles more than one
inch in diameter.

Examples:

Cannon – the first European firearm.

Howitzer – a cannon used to deliver shells along a parabolic

trajectory.
Bazooka – American invention and was first used in
battle against German tanks in North Africa in 1943. A
lightweight rocket launcher and the first artillery weapon
to use rockets as offensive missiles.

Gustav Gun – built in 1941 by the Krupp Company. The

largest gun ever used in combat by the German during
the siege at Sevestapol in April 1942.
2. Small Arms
Types of firearms that propel projectiles less than
one inch in diameter.

Examples…

Machine Guns - a type of weapon which fires or designed to

fire automatically or semi-automatically, more than one shot
without manual reloading by a single press of the trigger.

Shoulder Arms - type of firearms that are normally fired from

the shoulder.

Hand Arms - types of firearms that are designed or intended

to be fired using one hand either the right or left hand.
Classification of Small Arms (As to Wounding Power)

1. Low Velocity Firearms - these are firearms with a

muzzle velocity of not more than 1,400 feet per second.
(Ex. Revolver)

2. High Power Firearms - these are firearms with a

muzzle velocity of more than 1,400 feet per second. The
usual muzzle velocity is 2,200 to 2,500 feet per second or
more. Ex. Military Rifle.
Caliber

Term used to indicate

the bore diameter measured
Cross Section of a Rifled Bore
between two opposite lands.
Gun Barrel
The caliber is usually
expressed in hundredths of an
inch or millimeters.

land

barrel

groove
Equivalent of calibers in Inches to Millimeters

Caliber .50 …………………………….. 12.7mm

Caliber .45 ….. …………………………11.43mm
Caliber .44……………………………….11.17mm
Caliber .40……………………………… 10mm
Caliber .38 ….. ………………………….9mm
Caliber .32 ….. ………………………….7.65mm
Caliber .30 ……………………………... 7.62mm
Caliber .25 ……………………………… 6.35mm
Caliber .22 ……………………………… 5.59mm
Note:

T o convert millimeter calibration to inches, multiply

the caliber in millimeters by 0.03937 or divide by 25.4.

To convert inches calibration to millimeters, multiply

the caliber in inches by 25.4 or divide by 0.03937.

Classes of Firearms (Gun Barrel Internal Construction)

1. Smoothed-Bore Firearms – firearms having no riflings in

the inner surface of the gun barrel

2. Rifled-Bore Firearms – firearms with riflings in the inner

surface of the gun barrel.
Classification of Small Arms (As to Wounding Power)

1. Low Velocity Firearms - these are firearms with a

muzzle velocity of not more than 1,400 feet per second.

2. High Power Firearms - these are firearms with a muzzle

velocity of more than 1,400 feet per second. The usual
muzzle velocity is 2,200 to 2,500 feet per second or more.
Types of Firearms (according to mechanical construction)

1. Single Shot Firearms - type of firearm designed to fire only

one shot every loading.

2. Repeating Arms - type of firearms to fire several shots in

one loading.
3. Bolt Action Type - reloading is done by manipulation of
the bolt.
4. Automatic Action Type - are weapons whose mechanism
is so arranged that will fire continuously while the trigger is
depressed.
5. Semi-automatic Type - a firearm requiring a separate
pull of the trigger for each shot fired, and which uses the
energy of discharge to perform a portion of the operating
or firing cycle.
6. Slide Action Type (pump action) - loading takes
place by back and forth manipulation of the under forearm
of the gun.
7. Lever Type - loading takes place by lever action on the
firearm.
8. Break Action Type - is a type of firearm where the
barrel(s) are hinged and can be "broken open" to expose the
breech.
9. Single Action Type - weapon in which pressure upon
the trigger releases the hammer that must be manually
cocked.

10. Double Action Type - weapon in which pressure upon

the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer.
Classification of Firearms (According to the manner of Feeding)

1. Muzzle Loading Firearms - these are firearms on which

the ammunition is feed through the muzzle.

2. Clip Loading Firearms - it is a firearm wherein

ammunitions are hold together on a clip as a unit, serving as
its magazine.
3. Magazine Loading Firearms - these are firearms which
are feed by the use of magazine.

4. Breech Loading Firearms - firearms which are loaded on

its breech.

5. Link or belt - these are weapons designed to receive

cartridges in belt or link.
Kinds of Firearms
1. Rifle - type of small weapon designed to be fired from
the shoulder (2,500 feet per second).

2. Sub-machine gun - is a light, portable machine gun

which uses pistol size ammunition.
3. Carbine - a .30 caliber short rifle having a
barrel of not longer than 22 inches.

4. Shotgun - a smooth bore weapon designed to

shoot a number of pellets in one charge.

Semi-Automatic Shotgun
5. Musket - an ancient smooth bore weapon designed
to shoot a single round lead ball.

Round Lead Ball

Musket
 6. Pistol - a hand firearm which applies to single shot and
automatic loading (1,200 feet or more per second).

7. Revolver - a hand firearm equipped with a rotating

cylinder serving as chamber and magazine and places
cartridges into position for firing (600 feet per second).
Ammunition
Ammunition
Legal Definition…

It refers to the ammunition as a “loaded shell” for rifles,

muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and pistols from
which a ball, bullet, shot, shell, or other missile may be fired
by means of gunpowder or other explosives.

Technical Definition…

Technically speaking, the term ammunition refers to a

group of cartridges or a “single unit” or “single cartridge” it
may also refer to a single “round”.
Cartridge - refers to a complete
unfired unit consisting of a bullet,
cartridge case, gunpowder and a
primer.

Bullet
Casing

Primer
Origin of Cartridge – it is
derived from the Latin word
“CHARTA” which means “Paper”.
or from the French word
“CARTOUCHE” which means “Roll
of paper”.
Classification of Cartridges

a. According to location of primers

b. According to the diameter of the base

c. According to shape
 a. According to
location of primers

1. Pin-fire Cartridge

Attributed to Monsieur Le Faucheux of Paris in 1836

for making the first gun to use this type. The pin extends
radically through the head of the cartridge case into the
primer.
Actually the cartridge was invented by another
Frenchman named HOULLIER.
2. Rim-fire Cartridge (Flobert of France)
The priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed
in the rim of the head of the cartridge case.
3. Center-fire Cartridge
The priming mixture or the primer cup is placed
at the middle portion of the head of the cartridge case.
b. According to the diameter of the base

1. Rimmed Type - the

diameter of the rim or the
base is greater than the
diameter of the body of
the cartridge case.
2. Semi-rimmed Type - the diameter of the rim or base
is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case.

super .38 9mm

caliber .25 caliber .32

3. Rimless Type - the diameter of the rim or the base is

equal to the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
4. Rebated Type - the diameter of the rim or the base is
smaller than the body of the cartridge case.

5. Belted Type - there is a protruding metal around the

body of the cartridge case near the rim or these belted
cartridges designed intended to use in machine gun.
c. According to Shape
1. Straight

hand arms ammunition

2. Tapered

.50 caliber

3. Bottleneck or Necked

center fire rifle cartridge

Cartridge Cases
Cartridge Case is a tubular metallic or non-metallic
container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder, and
primer. Likewise termed as “shell” or “casing”.
Cartridge case of all types are made by a machine
operation known as “ Drawing”.
Functions of Cartridge Cases

1. Holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into

one unit.

2. Serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.

3. It serves as a “Gas Seal” at the breech end of the barrel.

Parts of the Cartridge

a. Rim is the protruding metal at the base of the shell in the

case of rimmed type and semi-rimmed type.

Purpose of Rim on Cases

a. Limits the forward travel of cartridges into their chambers.

b. Offer the best grip for an extractor.

b. Primer Pocket

1. Holding primers securely in

central position.

2. Providing a means to
prevent the escape of gas to the
rear of the cartridge caused by
the ignition of priming mixture.

3. Providing a solid support for

primer anvils, without which the
latter could not be fired.
c. Vents or Flash Holes

It is the “opening” or “canal” that

connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.

d. Head and Body

Constitute the “cork” that plugs the

breech of the barrel against the escape
of the gas.
e. Neck
The part of the cartridge case
that is occupied by the bullet. In
cases of bottleneck, the “neck” is
apparent but in the so-called
“straight” cases which involve only a
slight taper, it is not.

f. Shell Cannelures

Are the serrated grooves

that are sometimes found rolled
into the necks and bodies of the
cases at the location of the bases
of the bullet to prevent the bullet
from being pushed back or
loosened.
g. Crimp
Is the part of the mouth of a cartridge
case or shot shell that is turned in upon the
bullet.
1. it aids in holding the bullet in place
2. it offers resistance to the movement of the
bullet out of the neck which affects the burning
of the gunpowder.
h. Base

The bottom portion of

the case which holds the
following:

1. The “primer” which

contains the priming
mixture

2. The “shell head” which

contains the “headstamp”,
“caliber”, and “years of
manufacture”.
i. Shoulder

That portion which

supports the neck.

j. Extracting Groove

The circular groove near

the base of the case or shell
designed for the automatic
withdrawal of the case after
each firing.

k. Mouth

That part responsible for

holding the bullet.
BULLET
Definition of Bullet - is a metallic or non-metallic
cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of
expansive force of gases coming from burning gun powder.
Origin of Bullet

Bullet is originated from the French word

“BOULETTE” which means a “SMALL BALL”
Types of Bullets

1. Ball Bullets - have soft lead cores inside the jacket and
are used against personnel only.

2. Armor Piercing Bullet - is a pointed, flat base bullet with a

gilding metal jacket. It has a hardened steel core of pointed,
boat-tailed shape and fired at vehicles and other armored
targets.
3. Tracer Bullet - contain a compound at the base similar
to BARIUM NITRATES, which is set on fire when the bullet
is projected.

4. Incendiary Bullets - contain a mixture on the tip , such

as phosphorous or other material, that can be set on fire
by impact.

5. Dum-Dum Bullets - this type of bullet were invented by

British Ordnance force stationed at their arsenal at Dum-
Dum, India.
6. Wad-Cutter Bullet - a cylindrical bullet design having a
sharp shouldered intended to cut a target paper clearly to
facilitate easy and accurate scoring.

7. Explosive (fragmentary bullet) - contain a high charge

of explosive.

8. Frangible - designed to disintegrate into tiny particles

upon impact.

9. Rifle Slug - which is used in shotgun.

Souvenir Bullet - is the term given when the bullet
has been lodged and remained in the body.

Bullet Migration - is when the bullet did not lodge in a

place where it was previously located.

Bullet embolism - is a special form of bullet migration

when the bullet loses its momentum while inside the
chamber of the heart or inside the big blood vessel and
carried by the circulating blood to some parts of the
body where it may be lodged.
It may cause sudden loss of function of the area
supplied or death if vital organs are involved.

Tandem Bullet - refers to two or more bullets that

leave the barrel one after the other.
Primers
Definition

Primer - is that portion of the cartridge which consists of a

brass or gilding metal cup.

Priming Cup - that part that contains a highly sensitive

priming compound or highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound,
which when struck by the firing pin would “Detonate or
Ignite”.

Percussion - the detonation or the ignition of priming

mixture when it struck by the firing pin.
Origin
Alexander John Forsyth (1807)

A well-authority to firearm who is credited for being

the first to conceive the idea of using detonating compound
for igniting powder charges in a small arms by “percussion”
and he obtained a patent for this idea.

The first successful priming mixture he made was

composed of “Potassium Chlorate”, “Charcoal” and
“sulphur” in powdered form.
 Parts of the Primer (center-fire
cartridge)

1. Primer Cup

The container of the

priming mixture.

2. Priming Mixture

The highly sensitive of

chemical compound contained in
the primer cup.
3. Anvil

That portion of the

primer against which the
priming mixture is crushed
by a blow from a firing pin.

4. Disc

Piece of small paper

or disc of tin foil which is
pressed over the priming
mixture.
Three Modern Types of Primers (center fire cartridge)

a. Boxer Type Primer

Invented by Col. Ellie Boxer, a British Army officer, who
identified that the Anvil is a separate piece of metal in the
primer and contains one vent or flash hole.

b. Berdan Type Primer

Introduced by Col. Hiram Berdan of the United States
Army, he stated the fact that the Anvil is not an integral part of
the primer but of the cartridge case and having two vents or
flash hole.

c. Battery Cup Type

Usually used for shotgun shell, which is simply a
variation of the Boxer type.
Gunpowder
Definition

Gunpowder (powder charge, propellant powder)

The gunpowder in a cartridge or shotgun shell which

when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under
high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through
the barrel and to the target.

Deflagaration

Is the process of rapid and confined burning of the

propellant.
Origin

Roger Bacon
An English monk and scientist, credited for the
invention of gunpowder in 1248.

Berthold Schwartz(real name Constantine Angklitzen)

A German monk, recognized for the application of
gunpowder to the propelling of a bullet in the early 1300.
 Evidence Exists of Much Earlier Use of Gunpowder

1. Moors used of artillery against Zaragoza in 1118

2. General Batu (Tartar Leader) used the artillery in Leignitz

in 1245 when he defeated the Poles, Hungarians and

Russians.
Classification of Gunpowder

a. Black powder

b. Semi-Smokeless
Powder

c. Smokeless Powder
Black powder (quick flash)
First gunpowder to be discovered and is the oldest
among the propellant. Consists of irregular grains either dull
or shiny black surface and produces a large amount of smoke
when fired.

Composition of Black Powder:

Potassium Nitrate………………………………………. 75%

Charcoal…………………………………………………15%

Sulphur……………………………………………………10%
Semi-Smokeless Powder
In the late 1890’s and early 1900’s semi-smokeless
powder began to be used as a substitute for black powder.
Medium rate with less smoke.

Composition of Semi-Smokeless Powder

Sulphur

Potassium nitrate

Charcoal

Nitrocellulose
Smokeless Powder
The most powerful among the propellant and
manufactured principally from nitrated cotton which is
called “NITROCELLULOSE”.

Relatively slow burning with little smoke and

commonly used now in modern small arms ammunition.

Composition of Smokeless Powder

Nitrocellulose…………………………………………. 60 parts

Nitroglycerine………………………………………… 35 parts

Vaseline………………………………………………… 5 parts
Main Classes of Smokeless Powder

Single-Based Propellant (Ballistite)

Contains only pure nitrocellulose.

Double-Based Propellant (Cordite)

Are those having nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as
their major ingredients. This is commonly used in handgun
and rifle cartridges.

Triple-Based Propellant (POUDRE B)

Combination of nitroglycerin and nitro-guanidine as
ingredients. Commonly used in artillery guns.
Christian Friedrich Schonbien
First introduced the GUNCOTTON or NITRATED
COTTON, a nitrocellulose- based material and principal
ingredient of smokeless powder in 1846.

Paul Vieille
A French engineer working on behalf of the French
government, invented a good smokeless powder in 1884
which is called POUDRE B.

Alfred Nobel
Developed a smokeless gunpowder called
BALLISTITE in GREAT BRITAIN in 1887.
Sir Frederick Abel and James dewar
Responsible for the modification of ballistite which
eventually became known as CORDITE.

Hudson Maxim
Obtained a patent for smokeless powder in USA in
1890.
Gunpowder Residue Analysis - a test use to determine the
muzzle to target distance based on the depositing of the
gunpowder residue or nitrates at the entrance wound.

Powder - is never totally burned when a gun is fired.

Residues are thrown out quite some distance ( as well as
backward in a cloud-like formation).
By analyzing the presence or absence of powder
residue thrown out forward towards the target, the analyst
can determine muzzle to target distance.
Distances and angles can also be determined by
analyzing the halo, tattooing, or spotting around the bullet
hole in a target’s garment.

Infrared photography - will usually reveal even the most

minute traces of powder residue.
Muzzle-to-Garment or Muzzle-to-Target Distance Tests

Tests to determine the firing distance by examining the

area around a bullet entrance hole for gunshot residues
and to determine the firing distance through shotgun
pattern testing.

1. A halo of soot around the hole is usually 12 – 18 inches.

2. A halo with specks usually 18 – 25 inches.
3. Specks only 25 – 36+ inches.
Muzzle to Target Distance
Dense pattern on net shirt
Contact Close Range Intermediate Distant
Ejection Pattern testing - a test use to determine the
approximate location of the shooter based on the scattered
ejected cartridge cases.
 Ejection Pattern Testing

Firearm
Average Point
 Ejected Shells

Trajectory Analysis

Location
Location of
of
shooter
shooter
Proof Test
Is a test wherein a deliberately over pressured round
is fired from a firearm in order to verify that the firearm is not
defective and will not explode on firing. The firearm is
inspected after the test, and if it is found to be in sound
condition.

Proof Mark
Mark found on the firearm to indicate that the firearm
has been proofed. In many jurisdictions a proof test and valid
proof mark are required for the sale of firearms.
Proof Round
Is an ammunition assembly designed to be used in
proof testing; this can use a fixed cartridge, a semi-fixed
cartridge, or separately loaded projectile, charge and primer.

Proof Shot
Is a special projectile used in a proof round or other
projectile weapons, electromagnetic guns for example.
 Test for the Presence of Gunpowder Residue

a. Paraffin Test or Dermal Nitrate Test

An oldest test in existence (1933) and was designed
to check for the residue on the hands.

Nitrates
Are the most common unburned part of the
gunpowder residue.
b. Griess Test
Designed to assist with the measurement of
distances and angles.
The examiner presses a photographic paper onto
the surfaces near the target, then sprays the paper with
SODIUM RHODIZONATE and pink to violet color
appears if nitrates were present.

c. Harrison Gilroy Test

Does not check for nitrate at all, but for
antimony, barium, and lead using the same paper
color change indicator.
Barrel
Barrel

Part of the firearm which initiates the path of the

bullet.
All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for
which they are made for, are being manufactured from a
solid piece of metal.
The metal is carefully selected, for its Machinability,
durability, strength.
Steps in making Gun Barrel

1. Drilling

2. Reaming

3. Rifling Process

4. Lapping

5. Chambering Process
1. Drilling
is the first step and the most difficult among the
process.

2. Reaming
this is the next step to remove the scars and scratches
left by the drilling operations in the entire length.

3. Rifling Process
which first made an appearance in the 15th century, is
the process of making grooves in gun barrels that imparts a
spin to the projectile for increased accuracy and range. Bullets
fired from rifled weapons acquire a distinct signature of
grooves, scratches, and indentations which are somewhat
unique to the weapon used.
Rifling Process

a. Broaching System

A tool having a series of cutting

edges of slightly increasing
height used to cut the spiral
grooves in a barrel.
 b. Button
A hardened metal plug called a “button”
affixed to a long rod with a rifled cross section
configuration.
c. Swage (hammer forging)
An internal mandrel with rifling configuration which
forms rifling in the barrel by means of external hammering.
Hammer forging produces a type of rifling called
“polygonal rifling”.

d. Electro Chemical Rifling

Is formed by wet-etching the interior part of barrel under
an electric current which dissolve the metal to create grooves
in the barrel.
4. Lapping
This operation polishes both the land and groove
areas of the barrel and remove many of the larger
imperfections resulting from the cutting operations.

5. Chambering Process
This is the final step in making gun barrel.
Chambering or cutting away of the breech end of the barrel
where the cartridge or shotgun shell is to fit.
Types of Riflings

1. Steyr Type
Four Lands and Grooves, Right hand twist, width of
the groove is equal to the width of the land (4R-G=L).

2. Smith and Wesson

Five lands and Grooves, Right hand twist, width of
groove is equal to the width of lands (5R-G=L).

3. Browning Type
Six lands and grooves, right hand twist, grooves is
twice broader or wider than the lands (6R-G2x).
4. Colt Type
Six lands and grooves, left hand twist, grooves is
twice broader or wider than the lands (6L-G2x).

5. Webley type
Seven lands and grooves, right hand twist, grooves
is thrice broader or wider than the lands (7R-G3x).

6. Army Type
Four lands and grooves, right hand twist, grooves is
thrice broader or wider than the lands (4R-G3x).
Breechface Manufacture
Another stage of firearm manufacturing which is very
important in identifying the firearm is the finishing operations
on the breechface of the weapon.
This is that portion of the firearm from which the
cartridge case and the primer are forced backwards when a
cartridge is fired in the chamber.
As this occurs, the base of the cartridge case will be
imprinted with the tool markings on the breechface of the
Firearm.
These happens because the base of the cartridge case
is softer than the breechface of the firearm.
“Therefore, when the soft surface comes in contact with
a hard surface under tremendous pressure, it is the soft
surface that is left or engraved with the toolmark from the hard
surface. (Principle of Exchange)
 Revolver
Firearms Breechface

Shot gun

When a cartridge is
fired, the explosion
Breech forces the bullet
down the barrel and
the shell casing is
forced back against
the breech. This
leaves impressions
unique to the
individual gun’s
breech on the shell
casing.
Forensic Firearm identification
Principles of Firearm identification

Studies have shown that no two firearms, even those

of the same make and model, will produce the same unique
marks on fired bullets and cartridge cases.
Manufacturing processes, use, and abuse leave
surface characteristics within the firearm that cannot be
exactly reproduced in other firearms.
Basic Principle in Firearm identification

a. Firearms identification is actually a refine toolmark

identification.

b. The natural wear and tear of the tools is involved.

c. When a soft surface comes in contact with the hard

surface, the soft surface is left with impressions or
scratches from any irregularities on the hard surface.

d. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical.

e. Principles of firearm identification states that “no two
barrels of firearms are microscopically identical as the
surface of their bore posses individual characteristics.

f. These scratches or striations vary from gun to gun and

it can be said that “no two guns will leave the same
scratches or impressions on a fired bullets and shells.
Principles in Bullet identification

a. No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical as

the internal surface of their bore possesses individual and
characteristic markings of their own.

b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes

engraved by the riflings and these engravings will vary in its
minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that
the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel will be
different from another bullet fired from another barrel.
c. Conversely, the engravings on the bullets fired from
the same barrel will the same.

d. Every barrel leaves its “THUMBMARK” or

“FINGERPRINT” or “SIGNATURE” on every bullet fired
or propelled through it.
Principles in Shell Identification

a. The breechface and striker (firing pin) of every single

firearm has microscopic individualities of their own.

b. Every firearm leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumbmark”

on every cartridge case it fires.

c. The whole principle of identification of shells is

predicated or based on the fact that since the breechface
of every weapon must be individually distinct, the
cartridge cases which it fires are imprinted with this
individuality. The imprints of all cartridge cases fired from
the same weapon are the same, and those on cartridge
cases fired from different weapons are different.
General Characteristics of Firearm
a. Class characteristics b. Individual Characteristics

Bore Diameter (caliber) Striations

Number of lands and Impressions

Grooves (riflings)

Width of Lands

Width of Grooves

Depth of Grooves

Direction of twist

Pitch of Riflings
Class Characteristics

Are those characteristics that are determinable prior

or before the manufacture of the firearms.
These characteristics are factory specifications and
within the control of man.
These serve as basis for identifying a certain class or
group firearms.
 1. Bore Diameter (caliber)

The diameter in
which the bore was reamed.

It is a distance
measured between two
opposite lands.
2. Number of lands and
Grooves (riflings)

The number of lands

and grooves in the inner
surface of a barrel are always
the same.

Grooves - the depressed portions.

Lands - the raised or elevated portions.
3. Width of Lands

Land width is dependent

on the bore diameter, groove
width and number.

The lands are “reminder”

of the circumference after
subtracting all the groove
widths.

4. Width of Grooves

Groove width is
measured as the “shortest” Width of lands and
distance between two sides or grooves varies between
manufacturers
edges of a groove.
5. Depth of Grooves

Groove depth is
measured on a radius of the
bore.
land
Grooves are usually a few
thousands of an inch
deep.

It is equal to the height of groove

the side of a land.
6. Direction of twist

Rifling inside the bore may twist either to the right or

left.
The twist of the rifling cause the bullet to “rotate” as it
passes through the bore.

Left Twist Right Twist

7. Pitch of Riflings

It is a measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves

(riflings).
It refers to the distance advance by the riflings in one
complete turn (360).

Rate of Twist
is the expression for one complete turn of the rifling on a certain
length of the barrel. We say the twist rate is 1:12 when there is one
complete spiral groove in 12 inch of the barrel.

Fast Twist - When the number of inches of the barrel

required for a complete turn is small, like 1:8;

Slow Twist – When a greater number of inches in the barrel is

necessary to have one complete turn, like 1:14;
Class Characteristics of Different Firearms
Make/Model Types Caliber Class Characteristics

Armalite Rifle .22 6R-G2X

Texas Scout Revolver .22 4R-G2X

Moroko Japan Pistol .22 5L-G+

Squibman Rifle .22 4R-G2X

Llama Revolver .22 Magnum 6R-G+

Star Machine Pistol 9mm 6R-G2X Browning

Sterling SMG 9mm 6R-G+

German Luger Auto Pistol 9mm 6R-G=L

Beretta Auto Pistol .380 6R-G2X Browning

Smith & Wesson Revolver .38 5R-G=L S&W type

Thompson SMG .45 6R-G2X Browning

Smith & Wesson Auto Pistol .45 6R-G2X Browning

Make/Model Types Caliber Class Characteristics

Llama Auto Pistol .45 6R-G2X

Colt Auto Pistol .45 6L-G2X –Colt type

Remington Auto Pistol .45 6L-G2X –Colt type

Grease Gun SMG .45 4R-G3X – Army Type

Ithaca Auto Pistol .45 6L-G2X – Colt type

Springfield Armory Auto Pistol .45 6L-G2X – Colt type

Swissvale Auto Pistol .45 6L-G2X – Colt type

AK - 47 Assault Rifle .30 4R-G3X Army Type

Garand Rifle .30 4R-G3X Army type

U.S. Carbine Round Nose .30 4R-G3X Army Type

Individual Characteristics

Are marks produced by the random imperfections or

irregularities of tool surfaces.
Those are characteristics peculiar and not found in all
other firearms.
These are determinable only after the manufacture of
firearm and whose existence is beyond the control of man
and which have random distribution inside the gun.
The successful identification of firearms from
discharged bullets and empty cartridge cases is dependent
on a basic principle: There is no duplication in nature, and
exceptions to the rule are never manifested as the result of
man’s ingenuity.
Individual Characteristics

Striated action marks

These "scratches" are produced when the cartridge
case and bullets moves laterally against the tool (inner
surface of the firearm) producing a scrape or striated mark.

Impressed action marks

Impressed marks are created on cartridge cases
when it impacts the tool (against the firearm) with adequate
velocity or pressure to leave an impressed or indented mark.
 Barrel
Marks Found on Fired Bullets
-A) Land
-B) Groove
a. Land marks and Groove B
A
marks
Bullet
Depressed and Raised
portion caused by the lands -A) Land
and grooves that can be impression
-B) Groove
found at the peripheral portion
impression
of the fired bullet.

B A B
b. Skid marks
Are found more or less on the anterior portions of the
fired bullet and caused by the forward movement from its
stationary position or in the chamber and force abruptly into
the rifling before it initially rotates or encounter the regular
rifling twist.
c. Slippage or Stripping marks
Found on bullets fired through loose fit barrels wherein
the rifling is already worn out, oily barrels and slightly
oversized.

d. Shaving marks
Most commonly these marks are found on bullets fired
from a revolver due to a poor alignment of the cylinder with
the bore of the barrel.
Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Cases Hairline structure

a. Firing pin mark (Impression)

The indentation in the primer
of a center fire cartridge case or in
the rim of a rimfire cartridge case
upon a blow from a firing pin.

evidence test
Firing Pin Marks (Center Fire Cartridge)
Firing Pin Marks (Rim Fire Cartridge)
b. Firing Pin Drag Marks (striations)
This are marks made by the firing pin
when it strikes the primer of the bullet and
remains there for a fraction of a second.
c. Breechface Marks (Impressions)
Negative impression of the breechface found on
the base of the cartridge case after firing.
Hairline structure
d. Chamber marks (striations)
Found around the body of the cartridge case and they
are caused by the irregularities from the chamber wall.

Hairline
structure

question standard
e. Extractor Marks (striations)
Tool marks produced upon a cartridge case
fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns, machine guns
upon contact with the extractor.

Extracting
Groove
f. Ejector marks (impressions/striations)
Tool marks produced upon a cartridge case that can
be found directly at or near the rim from contact with the
ejector.

Comparison of Impressed Comparison of Striated

Ejector Marks Ejector Marks

Question Standard Question Standard

Bullet and Shell identification

Bullets collected for comparison to a specific firearm

are examined first to see if they are of a caliber that could
have been fired from the submitted firearm. They are then
examined to determine if the pattern of rifling impressions
found on the bullet match the pattern of rifling contained in
the barrel of the questioned firearm.

If these class characteristics agree the next step is to

try to make a positive match between the individual
characteristics that may have transferred to the bullet from
the barrel.
 Imperfections in the surface of the interior of the barrel
leave striations on the projectiles.

Striations have the potential to be consistently

reproduced in a unique pattern on every bullet that passes
down the barrel of a firearm.

To facilitate its easy and final microscopic examination,

cartridge cases will also be segregated to determined the
caliber, type and make of firearm from which they fired.

As soon as cartridges are loaded into a firearm the

potential for the transfer of unique tool marks exists.
 Examinations Conducted

A submitted firearm will be fired several times using a

BULLET RECOVERY BOX.
Fired standards are examined first to determine if in
fact the barrel is producing striated marks in a unique and
consistent pattern.
Once a consistently reoccurring pattern to the marks is
identified on standards, the standards are compared to the
evidence bullets to see if the same pattern of marks exists on
the evidence. To make these comparisons the firearm
examiner will use a comparison microscope.
 Most positive identifications are made on
striations that occur in land impressions and the best
marks are usually near the base (in case of the bullet as
evidence).
In some cases, a firearm may not be recovered
for comparison.
When this happens firearm examiners can
examine bullets for general rifling characteristics
(GRC) in an attempt to determine what brands of
firearms from which the bullet may have been fired.

General rifling characteristics or GRC

Are the identified rifling pattern (i.e. 8/right) and
the diameters of the individual lands and grooves.
Findings/Conclusion

Findings are the basis of conclusion. A conclusion

cannot be made without the findings. Good conclusion is
always based on good findings.

In the comparative microscopic examination of the

evidence bullet/shell with the test fired bullet/shell a firearms
examiner will arrive at one of three conclusions:
a. Identification
Signifies a match between two ammunition
components (bullet, shell) or a match between an
ammunition components and firearm.

b. Exclusion
Represents a non-match between the examined items
of evidence – the possibility of an association between the
items is excluded.

c. No Conclusion
Indicates that the ammunition components could
neither be identified nor eliminated as having been fired by a
particular weapon based on the quantity and quality of
microscopic markings.
Limitations:

Shooting incidents that resulted to murders, homicide,

physical injuries and indiscriminate firing of a gun continue to
exist.
The suspects remained unidentified and the only traces
of that could possibly identify them are bullet extracted from
the victims and shells and bullets recovered from the crime
scene.
The only means the police in the investigation can rely
on, is the science of firearm identification or forensic ballistics
at the police crime laboratory.
 However, the examination of the submitted
ballistics specimens, no matter how complicated, could
only be examined within the province of the so called
Seven (7) Problems in Forensic Ballistics or Firearms
Identification.

1. Given a bullet: to determine the caliber, type and make

of firearm from which the bullet was fired.
2. Given a fired shell: to determine the caliber, type
and make of firearm from which the fired cartridge
case was fired.
3. Given two or more fired bullets: to determine whether
or not they were fired from one and the same firearm.
4. Given two or more fired cartridge cases: to determine
whether or not they were fired from one and the same firearm.
5. Given a fired bullet and suspected firearm: to determine
whether or not the bullet was fired from a suspected firearm.
6. Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearm:
to determine whether or not the fired cartridge case
was fired from a suspected firearm.

Evidence shell

Evidence firearm
7. Given a firearm: to determine whether or not it is
serviceable.
Ballistics Scientific Equipment
1. Bullet Comparison Microscope

The Bullet Comparison

Microscope is the most
important scientific equipment
in a typical Ballistics
Laboratory.

It is used for comparing

evidence bullets or shells and
test bullets or shells to
determine whether or not they
were fired from a suspected
fatal gun.
 2. Sterioscopic Microscope

It is generally used in the preliminary examinations

of fired bullets and fired shells to determine the relative
distribution of the class characteristics or for so called
orientation purposes.
It can also be used in the close up examination of
tampered serial numbers of firearms.
3. Bullet Recovery box

This is the equipment

used in test firing the evidence
firearm to recover test fired
bullets and test fired cartridge
cases for comparison
purposes with the evidence
bullet and shell under the bullet
comparison microscope.
4. Helixometer

This is the type of instrument used in measuring

“pitch of riflings” of firearms.

Pitch of riflings

is the distance advance by the riflings or bullet in

one complete turn (360 degrees) or it may mean the
“distance it has travelled in completing 360 degree
rotation”.

This instrument is generally used in highly

advanced ballistics laboratories or commercial agencies.
5. Caliper

This is an instrument
used in making measurements
such as bullet diameter, bore
diameter, barrel length,
and other important details.

6. Micrometer

Similar in use as
calipers.
7. Analytical or Torsion Balance

This is used for determining weights of bullets or

shotgun pellets-for possible determination of type, caliber,
and make of firearms from which they were fired.

8. Onoscope

A small instrument sometimes used in examining the

internal surface of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the
terminal portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal
examinations.
9. Taper Gauge

Used primarily for determining the bore diameter of

firearms.

10. Electric Gun Marker

Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired

shells, and firearms submitted for examination.

11. Chronograph

Used primarily for determining the speed of the bullet or

the muzzle velocity of the bullet.
 New weapon on the War on Crime
IBIS – a computerized identification system that store
ballistics information on bullets and cartridge cases
submitted as evidence in connection with a crime. It also
stores test fired bullets and cartridge cases and can cross
search and match the known with the unknown in an attempt
to identify a cartridge case or bullet. The computer
electronically compares and catalogs bullets and shells
located in the crime scene.

BULLETPROOF – is a field proven automated bullet image

analysis system. It captures the image of the microscopic
features found on a fired bullets surface in highly repeatable
manner. The markings or signature are analyzed by the
computer and can be compared to those of other fired
bullets or to an entire database if fired.
BRASSCATCHER – an automated cartridge case image
analysis system. It incorporate the exacting forensic science
software required to extract marking of signature from an
expended cartridge case, similar in operation to Bulletproof. It
has the ability to automatically search database of cartridge
cases and rank in descending order the most likely hits.

DRUGFIRE – developed by the Federal Bureau of

Investigations and Mnemonic Systems Inc., is a new
computerized technology that will allow the Forensic Firearm
Examiner to associate previously unrelated firearms involved
in different cases. This is a data based driven multi-media
system designed to increase the effectiveness of Forensic
Firearm Examiner in searching open case expended cartridge
and bullet files. This system also integrates a forensic data
base, audio, video, digital imaging and tele-communications
to aid the examiner in his quest to associate unrelated cases.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 10591

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A COMPREHENSIVE

LAW ON FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION AND
PROVIDING PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS
THEREOF
"Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition
Regulation Act"
 DEFINITION
• (a) Accessories refer to parts of a firearm
which may enhance or increase the
operational efficiency or accuracy of a firearm
but will not constitute any of the major or
minor internal parts thereof such as, but not
limited to;
• laser scope,
• telescopic sight and sound suppressor
• or silencer.
 Firearm
• - any handheld or portable weapon, whether a
small arm or light weapon, that expels or is
designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile
or any projectile, which is discharged by
means of expansive force of gases from
burning gunpowder or other form of
combustion or any similar instrument or
implement. For purposes of this Act, the ff. are
considered firearm
• barrel,
• frame or receiver
 Antique firearm
• (1) firearm which was manufactured at least
seventy-five (75) years prior to the current date but
not including replicas;
• (2) firearm which is certified by the National
Museum of the Philippines to be curio or relic of
museum interest; and
• (3) any other firearm which derives a substantial
part of its monetary value from the fact that it is
novel, rare, bizarre or because of its association
with some historical figure, period or event.
• Confiscated firearm refers to a firearm that is taken into
custody by the PNP, National Bureau of Investigation (NBI),
Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), and all other
law enforcement agencies by reason of their mandate and
must be necessarily reported or turned over to the FEO of
the PNP.
• Demilitarized firearm refers to a firearm deliberately made
incapable of performing its main purpose of firing a
projectile.
• Forfeited firearm - a firearm that is subject to forfeiture by
reason of court order as accessory penalty or for the
disposition by the FEO of the PNP of firearms considered as
abandoned, surrendered, confiscated or revoked in
compliance with existing rules and regulations.
• Loose firearm - an unregistered firearm, an
obliterated or altered firearm, firearm which
has been lost or stolen, illegally manufactured
firearms, registered firearms in the possession
of an individual other than the licensee and
those with revoked licenses in accordance
with the rules and regulations.
• Tampered, obliterated or altered firearm - any
firearm whose serial number or other
identification or ballistics characteristics have
been intentionally tampered with, obliterated
or altered without authority or in order to
conceal its source, identity or ownership.
 Arms smuggling
• the import, export, acquisition, sale, delivery,
movement or transfer of firearms, their parts
and components and ammunition, from or
across the territory of one country to that of
another country which has not been
authorized in accordance with domestic law in
either or both country/countries.
 Authority to import
• a document issued by the Chief of the Philippine National Police
(PNP) authorizing the importation of firearms, or their parts,
ammunition and other components.
• Authorized dealer - any person, legal entity, corporation, partnership
or business entity duly licensed by the Firearms and Explosive Office
(FEO) of the PNP to engage in the business of buying and selling
ammunition, firearms or parte thereof, at wholesale or retail basis.
• Authorized importer - any person, legal entity, corporation,
partnership or business duly licensed by the FEO of the PNP to
engage in the business of importing ammunition and firearms, or
parts thereof into the territory of the Republic of the Philippines for
purposes of sale or distribution under the provisions of this Act.
• Authorized manufacturer - any person, legal entity, corporation, or
partnership duly licensed by the FEO of the PNP to engage in the
business of manufacturing firearms, and ammunition or parts thereof
for purposes of sale or distribution
 Duty detail order
• - a document issued by the juridical entity or
employer wherein the details of the disposition of
firearm is spelled-out, thus indicating the name of
the employee, the firearm information, the specific
duration and location of posting or assignment and
the authorized bonded firearm custodian for the
juridical entity to whom such firearm is turned over
after the lapse of the order.
Firearms Information Management
System (FIMS)
• - the compilation of all data and information
on firearms ownership and disposition for
record purposes.
 Gunsmith
• - any person, legal entity, corporation,
partnership or business duly licensed by the
FEO of the PNP to engage in the business of
repairing firearms and other weapons or
constructing or assembling firearms and
weapons from finished or manufactured parts
thereof on a per order basis and not in
commercial quantities or of making minor
parts for the purpose of repairing or
assembling said firearms or weapons.
 Imitation firearm
• - a firearm, or other device that is so
substantially similar in coloration and overall
appearance to an existing firearm as to lead a
reasonable person to believe that such
imitation firearm is a real firearm.
• Licensed citizen - any Filipino who complies
with the qualifications set forth in this Act and
duly issued with a license to possess or to
carry firearms outside of the residence
• Licensed, juridical entity - corporations,
organizations, businesses including security
agencies and local government units (LGUs)
which are licensed to own and possess
firearms
•
Light weapons
Class-A Light weapons - self-loading pistols, rifles and carbines, submachine guns,
assault rifles and light machine guns not exceeding caliber 7.62MM which have
fully automatic mode; and
• Class-B Light weapons - weapons designed for use by two (2) or more persons
serving as a crew, or rifles and machine guns exceeding caliber 7.62MM such as
heavy machine guns, handheld under barrel and mounted grenade launchers,
portable anti-aircraft guns, portable anti-tank guns, recoilless rifles, portable
launchers of anti-tank missile and rocket systems, portable launchers of anti-
aircraft missile systems, and mortars of a caliber of less than 100MM.

• Thermal weapon sight - a battery operated, uncooled thermal imaging device

which amplifies available thermal signatures so that the viewed scene becomes
clear to the operator which is used to locate and engage targets during daylight and
from low light to total darkness and operates in adverse conditions such as light
rain, light snow, and dry smoke or in conjunction with other optical and red dot
sights.
 Registrations/Certificates
• Long certificate of registration refers to licenses issued to
government agencies or offices or government-owned or -
controlled corporations for firearms to be used by their
officials and employees who are qualified to possess
firearms as provider in this Act, excluding security guards.
• Short certificate of registration refers to a certificate issued
by the FEO of the PNP for a government official or
employee who was issued by his/her employer
department, agency or government-owned or -controlled
corporation a firearm covered by the long certificate of
registration.
• Major part or components of a firearm
• the barrel,
• slide, frame,
• receiver,
• cylinder or the bolt assembly.
The term also includes any part or kit designed and
intended for use in converting a semi-automatic burst to a full
automatic firearm.
• Minor parts of a firearm - the parts of the firearm other
than the major parts which are necessary to effect and
complete the action of expelling a projectile by way of
combustion, except those classified as accessories.
• Permit to carry firearm outside of residence refers to a
written authority issued to a licensed citizen by the Chief of
the PNP which entitles such person to carry his/her
registered or lawfully issued firearm outside of the
residence for the duration and purpose specified in the
authority.
– Life is under actual threat or his/her life is in imminent danger due
to the nature of his/her profession, occupation or business.
• Permit to transport firearm refers to a written authority
issued to a licensed citizen or entity by the Chief of the PNP
or by a PNP Regional Director which entitles such person or
entity to transport a particular firearm from and to a
specific location within the duration and purpose in the
authority.
 Professionals considered to be in imminent danger
due to the nature of their profession, occupation or
business:
• (a) Members of the Philippine Bar;
• (b) Certified Public Accountants;
• (c) Accredited Media Practitioners;
• (d) Cashiers, Bank Tellers;
• (e) Priests, Ministers, Rabbi, Imams;
• (f) Physicians and Nurses;
• (g) Engineers; and
• (h) Businessmen, who by the nature of their
business or undertaking, are exposed to high risk of
being targets of criminal elements.
 Small arms
• - firearms intended to be or primarily designed for individual use or that which is
generally considered to mean a weapon intended to be fired from the hand or
shoulder, which are not capable of fully automatic bursts of discharge, such as:
• (1) Handgun - a firearm intended to be fired from the hand, which includes:
• (i) Pistol - a hand-operated firearm having a chamber integral with or
permanently aligned with the bore which may be self-loading; and
• (ii) Revolver - a hand-operated firearm with a revolving cylinder containing
chambers for individual cartridges.
• (2) Rifle - a shoulder firearm or designed to be fired from the shoulder that can
discharge a bullet through a rifled barrel by different actions of loading, which may
be classified as lever, bolt, or self-loading; and
• (3) Shotgun - a weapon designed, made and intended to fire a number of ball shots
or a single projectile through a smooth bore by the action or energy from burning
gunpowder.
 Standards and Requisites for Issuance of and Obtaining
a License to Own and Possess Firearms (LTOPF)
• a Filipino citizen,
• at least twenty-one (21) years old and has gainful work, occupation or business or has filed
an Income Tax Return (ITR) for the preceding year as proof of income, profession, business
or occupation.
• In addition, the applicant shall submit the following certification issued by appropriate
authorities attesting the following:
• (a) The applicant has not been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude;
• (b) The applicant has passed the psychiatric test administered by a PNP-accredited
psychologist or psychiatrist;
• (c) The applicant has passed the drug test conducted by an accredited and authorized drug
testing laboratory or clinic;
• (d) The applicant has passed a gun safety seminar which is administered by the PNP or a
registered and authorized gun club;
• (e) The applicant has filed in writing the application to possess a registered firearm which
shall state the personal circumstances of the applicant;
• (f) The applicant must present a police clearance from the city or municipality police office;
and
• (g) The applicant has not been convicted or is currently an accused in a pending criminal
case before any court of law for a crime that is punishable with a penalty of more than two
(2) years.
 Licenses Issued to Individuals.
• –categories;
• Type 1 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of two (2)
registered firearms;
• Type 2 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of five (5)
registered firearms;
• Type 3 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of ten
(10) registered firearms;
• Type 4 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of fifteen
(15) registered firearms; and
• Type 5 license – allows a citizen, who is a certified gun collector, to own
and possess more than fifteen (15) registered firearms.

• For Types 1 to 5 licenses, a vault or a container secured by lock and key or other
security measures for the safekeeping of firearms shall be required.
• For Types 3 to 5 licenses, the citizen must comply with the inspection and bond
requirements.
 License to Possess Ammunition
Necessarily Included.
• – The licenses granted to qualified citizens or
juridical entities as provided in Section 9 of
this Act shall include the license to possess
ammunition with a maximum of fifty (50)
rounds for each registered firearm:
• Provided; That the FEO of the PNP may allow
more ammunition to be possessed by licensed
sports shooters.
“If the law has made you a witness,
remain a man of science. You have no
victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent
person to ruin or save. You must bear
witness within the limits of science.”