Design and comparative study between conventional and modified

rapid
Sand filter to recycle waste water
An project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of
the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

P.SAI 22NT5A0126

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. CH. SAI KIRAN, M. Tech,(Ph.D)
Assistant professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VISAKHA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUGV, Vijayanagaram) 88th Division,
NARAVA, VISAKHAPATNAM-530027
2021-2025

i
 VISAKHA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUGV, Vijayanagaram)

88th Division, NARAVA, VISAKHAPATNAM-530027

CERTIFICATE

This is certified that the project report entitled “Design and comparative study
between conventional and modified rapid sand filter to recycle waste water” is an
authentic record of project done by P.SAI (22NT5A0126) towards the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of bachelor of technology in
Civil Engineering.

Place: Visakhapatnam

Date :

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Mr. CH. SAI KIRAN, M. Tech,(Ph.D) Dr. CH. KANNAM NAIDU Ph.D,FIE.,
Assistant Professor, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVILENGINEERING VIET.

VIET.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 DECLARATION

We here by declare that work done in this project work entitled “Design and comparative
study between conventional and modified rapid sand filter to recycle waste water” has been
carried out by me, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in CIVIL ENGINEERING of Visakha Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Narava, Visakhapatnam.

Place : Visakhapatnam
Date :

BY

P.SAI 22NT5A0126

iii
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VISAKHA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PROJECT EVALUATION REPORT

This internship entitled “Design and comparative study between conventional and
modified rapid sand filter to recycle waste water” is an authentic record of project work
done by P. SAI (22NT5A0126) OF 2021 – 2025 batch, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in CIVIL
ENGINEERING at Visakha institute of engineering & technology has been approved.

Examiners :

……………………… project supervisor

(Mr. CH. SAI KIRAN, M. Tech,
(Ph.D))

……………………… External Examiner

……………………… Head of civil department

(Dr. CH. KANNAM NAIDU Ph.D,FIE.,)

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved and respected guide
Mr. CH.SAI KIRAN ,M.Tech,(Ph.D) in Civil Engineering for their valuable suggestions and
timely advice given to us at every stage in the project that enabled us to carry out the
project work successfully.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr .CH.KANNAM NAIDU ,M.TECH, Ph.D Head of Civil
Engineering Department, Visakha Institute of Engineering & Technology, Narava for his
constant encouragement and guidance to bring this project successfully within the
prescribed time.

We also express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. G. VIDYA PRADEEP VARMA, M.TECH,
Ph.D. Principal of Visakha institute of engineering & technology institution for providing
facilities for the successfully completion of this Project.

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to Sri G. SATYANARAYANA, M.Tech, MBA.,
Chairman of Visakha Institute of Engineering & Technology institution for providing facilities
for the successfully completion of this Project.

We also convey our gratitude to all members of Civil Engineering section who helped directly
or indirectly to convey to complete the Project successfully.

Finally, we thank our parents for their possible assistance during the completion of Project.

v
 ABSTRACT

Now a days we are facing lot of challenges to get a good quality of drinking water. It is
known that earth consists of more amount of salt water which cannot be used for drinking
or domestic purpose. It is also observed that there is a lot of waste water is generated in our
daily life, which is not been used for any purpose. So, the water has to be recycled or reused
by using filtration methods in order to reduce the wastage of water. The method which is
used to recycle or reused waste water is sand filtration method which improves the quality
of the water and makes the water to be used for both drinking & domestic purpose. In this
present study an experimental work is done is to purify the waste water by using rapid sand
filtration method. The conventional and modified rapid sand filters are designed and used
for filtering the waste water. After that the water tests are conducted like PH, Colour,
Estimation of total hardness, Estimation of chloride concentration on the collected water
and the test results are compared with each other to determine the suitability of the water
for drinking and domestic purpose.

CONTENTS
vi
SI.NO TITLE PAGE NO
1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT V
2 ABSTRACT V1
3 LIST OF FIGURES V11
4 LIST TABLES V111
CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 FILTRATION METHODS 2
1.2.1 SLOW SAND FILTRATION 2
1.2.2 RAPID SAND FILTRATION 2
1.3 NECESSITY OF WORK 3
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF WORK 3-4
1.5 SCOPE OF THE WORK 4
CHAPTER – 2 LITRATURE REVIEW
2.1 LITRATURE REVIEW 5-12
CHAPTER -3 MATERIALS USED
3.1 INTRODUCTION 13
3.2 MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 13
3.2.1 FINE AGGREGATE 13
3.2.1.1 TESTS 14
3.2.1.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE 14

3.2.1.3 FORMATION OF FINE AGGREGATE 15

3.2.1.4 CHARACTERSTICS OF FINE AGGREGATE 15

3.2.2 COARSE AGGREGATE 15

3.2.2.1 TESTS 16
3.2.2.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COARSE AGGREGATE
16
3.2.2.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATE 16

3.2.2.4 CHARACTERSTICS OF COARSE AGGREGATE 17

3.2.2.5 IMPORTANCE OF COARSE AGGREGATE 17

3.2.3 OIL PALM KERNEL SHELLS 18
3.2.3.1 CHARACTERSTICS OF PALM SHELLS 19
3.2.3.2 USES OF PALM SHELLS 19
3.2.4 CRUSHED DUST 19
3.2.4.1 TESTS 20
3.2.4.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CRUSHED DUST 20
3.2.4.3 FORMATION OF CRUSHED DUST 20
3.2.4.4 CHARACTERSTICS OF CRUSHED DUST 21
3.2.5 WASTE WATER 21
SOURCES OF WASTE WATER 22-23

vii
 CHAPTER :4 METHODOLOGY
4.1 METHODOLOGY 24
4.2POTENTIAL OF HYDROGEN 25
4.3ESTIMATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS 26
4.4ESTIMATION OF CHOLORIE CONCENTRATION 27-28
4.5TOTAL DISSOLOVED SOLIDS 29
5.1 CONVENTIONAL SAND FILTER 30-32
5.2 MODIFIED RAPID SAND FILTER 32-33
CHAPTER :7 CONCLUSIONS
7.1 Summary and Final Observations
7.2 Comparative Performance Analysis
7.3 Environmental and Economic Implications
7.4 Recommendations and Future Scope
REFERENCES 38-39
REFERENCES
IS CODES
IS CODES 40-41

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO

NO
1. FINE AGGREGATE 14
2. COARSE AGGREGATE 16
3. PALM SHELLS 18
4. CRUSHED DUST 19
5. WASTE WATER 22
6. FERRIC CHLORIDE 24
7. FERRIC CHLORIDE 24
8. PH METER 25
9. TESTING OF WATER 25
10. TITRATION PROCESS 27
11. EDTA AND CaCo3 SOLUTIONS 27
12. TITTIRATION PROCESS 28
13. TITTIRATION PROCESS 28
14. APPRATUS OF TDS 29
15. TAKING OBSERVATIONS 29
16. EMPTY BOX 30
17. DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL SAND FILTER 30
18. CONVENTIONAL MODEL 31
19. COLLECTION OF WASTE WATER 31
20. PALM OIL SHELLS 32
21. CRUSHED DUST 32
22. DESIGN OF MODIFIED RAPID SAND FILTER 32
23. DEPOSITION OF WASTE WATER 32

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1 PROPERTIES OF FINE AGGREGATE 14
2 PROPERTIES OF COARSE AGGREGATE 16
3 PHYSICAL PROPDERTIES OF OIL PALM KERNEL 18
SHELLS
4 PROPERTIES OF CRUSHED DUST 20
5 STANDAR TABLE OF PH 25
6 STANDAR TABLE OF TOTAL HARDNESS OF WATER 26
7 STANDAR TABLE OF CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION 28
8 STANDAR TABLE OF TDS 29

x
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

Water scarcity is a growing global concern, affecting millions of

people worldwide. It occurs when the demand for the water exceeds its availability,
leading to a shortage of this vital resources. Water scarcity can be caused by various
factors like climate change, population growth, urbanization, agricultural expansion,
water population. Water filtration will reduce the water scarcity in the present
situations. water filtration is the process of removing impurities and contaminates
from water to produce clean drinking water. Filtration is a fundamental unit process
that is commonly used to help remove: particles present in surface water, precipitated
hardness from lime-softened water, microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and protozoan
cysts), precipitates of aluminum and iron used in coagulation, and precipitated iron
and manganese present itt many well water supplies.

Filtration can be compared to a sieve or micro-strainer that traps

suspended material between the grains of filter media. However, since most
suspended particles can easily pass through the spaces between grains of the filter
media, straining is the least important process in filtration Filtration primarily depends
on a combination of complex physical and chemical mechanisms, the most important
being adsorption. Adsorption is the process of particles sticking onto the surface of the
individual filter grains or onto the previously deposited materials. Forces that attract
and hold particles to the grains are the same as those that work in coagulation and
flocculation In fact, coagulation and flocculation may occur in the filter bed,
especially if coagulation and flocculation before filtration was not properly controlled.
Incomplete coagulation can cause serious problems in filter operation.

Filters may be broadly classified as "rapid" or "slow" based on the rate at

which they operate. A slow sand filter is a filter operated at very low filtration rates
(usually 0.1-0.2 m/hr.) without coagulation in pre-treatment. Rapid sand filtration was
introduced in the United States in the 1880s and has been widely accepted for
municipal application because of its Lugh productivity and flexibility in treating
waters of different turbidities. In drinking water treatment, the function of rapid sand
filters is to remove particulate matter in the influent suspension and provide
significant pathogen removal. In contrast to slow sand filters, rapid sand filters are
operated at a much higher filtration rates (5-10 m/hr) and are frequently used in water
treatment following pre-treatment of the raw water by chemical coagulation,
flocculation, and sedimentation Filtration system uses various methods to remove
particles, bacteria, viruses and other impurities from water like physical barriers,
chemical treatment, biological treatment, ultraviolet (UV) light. By the effective water

1
 filtration process can help address water scarcity by improving water quality,
increasing water availability, reducing water waste.

In the following sections we will delve deeper into the causes and
the effects of water scarcity, as well as the various methods and technologies used in
water filtration. The water filtration process classifies into conventional sand filters
and modified rapid sand filters. In the conventional sand filters also know as slow
sand filters have been used for centuries to remove suspended solids and contaminates
from water. These filters use a layer of sand, typically 1-2 meters deep to filter water
at a slow rate, usually around 0.1-0.3 meters per hour.

1.2 FILTRATION METHODS

 Rapid sand filtration

 Slow sand filtration

1.2.1 SLOW SAND FILTRATION

It is a biological process that uses a slow flow rate to remove suspended solids, bacteria ,

viruses and other contaminates from water. Filter bed depth 0.9 to 1.8 meters (m)

Grain size 0.15 to 0.35 millimeters (mm)

1.2.2 RAPID SAND FILTRATION

It is a physical process that uses a slow flow rate to remove suspended solids and
contaminates from water.

Filter bed depth 0.6 to 1.2 meters (m)

Grain size 0.4 to 0.7 millimeters (mm)

1.3 NECESSITY OF THE WORK

2
The necessity of work in rapid sand filtration can be understood from the following points:
Removal of suspended solids: Rapid sand filtration helps remove suspended solids, such as
particulate matter, sediment, and other impurities, from the water. This is essential to produce
clear and clean water.
Improvement of water quality: Rapid sand filtration improves the overall quality of the
water by removing contaminants, reducing turbidity, and improving the aesthetic quality of
the water.
Prevention of clogging: Regular maintenance and backwashing of the rapid sand filter
prevent clogging and ensure the filter operates efficiently.
Extension of filter life: Proper maintenance and operation of the rapid sand filter extend its
lifespan, reducing the need for frequent replacements and saving costs.
Protection of downstream equipment: Rapid sand filtration protects downstream
equipment, such as pumps, valves, and pipes, from damage caused by suspended solids and
contaminants.

The work involved in rapid sand filtration includes:

 Backwashing: Regular backwashing of the filter to remove accumulated debris

and contaminants.
 Cleaning: Periodic cleaning of the filter media to maintain its effectiveness.
 Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of the filter, including
replacement of worn-out parts.
 Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of the filter's performance, including
pressure, flow rate, and water quality.

Overall, the work involved in rapid sand filtration is crucial to ensure the production of clean
and safe drinking water, while also protecting the filter and downstream equipment.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK

The objective of the present investigation is to investigate :

• To determine the parameters of waste water like PH, Turbidity, Total Dissolved
Solids, Estimation of total hardness, Estimation of chloride concentration by
conducting tests on the waste water.
• To design conventional and Modified Rapid Sand Filters.

3
 • To determine the parameters like Total Dissolved Solids, Estimation of total hardness,
Estimation of chloride concentration, parameters of waste water PH which is collected
from Conventional and Modified Rapid Sand Filter.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE WORK

In the present study, an experiment work is done to purify the waste water by using
rapid sand method. The waste water is collected and experimental work is done on the waste
water to know the properties of water like turbidity, P H, and Total dissolved solids ,
Estimation of total hardness, Estimation of chloride concentration, Ater testing the waste
water, it is the poured into conventional rapid filter and modified rapid filter for purifying the
water. After the purification process the water is collected and tested to know the properties
of the water and the test results both filters are compared with each other to know the water
which is more suitable for domestic purpose.

4
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1GENERAL
A review of previous research work was done to accomplish the objectives of this
project. Many researches have studied the properties and filtration process of the water
purification systems.

Erica K. Jacobsen (2004) : Water sources such as lakes, rivers, and ground water
supply much of the water for domestic use. Some of the water that reaches our household
faucets has also been used for other purposes. Water from these various sources is treated to
remove impurities and to make it suitable for human consumption. Several steps can form the
treatment process. Large items and particles can be filtered out using screens. Some particles
may be allowed to settle out. This can be aided by first adding lime (CaO) to produce a basic
solution. Alum (KAl(SO4)2) is then added, which reacts with hydroxide ions (OH – ) to form
Al(OH)3, a precipitate which settles out of solution, taking small particles with it. Additional
particles can be removed by filtration through sand. Activated charcoal has been treated to
increase its porosity and surface area, and is used to adsorb odors and some colored
substances. Certain impurities, including carbon-based particles and chlorine, are attracted to
the charcoal and remain trapped in the pores. Water is also disinfected using chemical
treatments, commonly chlorine. In this Activity, students make a water filtration column
using a two-liter plastic bottle that contains layers of gravel, sand, and activated charcoal.
They contaminate a sample of water and examine the filtration ability of the column.

Peter A Clark (2012) : The need for clean water has risen exponentially over the globe.
Millions of people are affected daily by a lack of clean water, especially women and children,
as much of their day is dedicated to collecting water. The global water crisis not only has
severe medical implications, but social, political, and economic consequences as well. The
Institute of Catholic Bioethics at Saint Joseph’s University has recognized this, and has
designed a slow-sand water filter that is accessible, cost-effective, and sustainable. Through
the implementation of the Institute’s slow-sand water filter and the utilization of
microfinancing services, developing countries will not only have access to clean, drinkable
swater, but will also have the opportunity to break out of a devastating cycle of poverty.

Oyewo Ayobami Solomon (2014) : Water samples were taken from three different
shallow wells in Abeokuta, Ogun state Nigeria (West Africa). These wells are represented by
as raw water A, B and C and were filtered using sand as filter media, sand grains of different
sizes was used. The raw water was filtered with fine sand (column 1), coarse sand (Column
2) and very coarse sand (column 3), these loadings are homogenous and the fourth column

5
contains there three sand layers. The filtered water was subjected to laboratory analysis which
includes the following: pH value, TDS (Total dissolved solids), EC (Electrical conductivity),
TS (Total Suspended Solid), Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Hardness and Sodium. The
obtained laboratory test results were compared with W.H.O standard for highest desirable and
maximum permissible. One way ANOVA and bar Chart are the statistical tools employed in
analyzing the data. The fine sand homogenous filter gives the best output, and then followed
by the coarse sand, and then the mixture of the sand also gives preferable outputs. The
homogenous fine sand media flow rate was slower but give the best output. In situation where
sand particles is very small, bed depth is very high, minimal or no chemical treatment will be
required after filtration.

Ansari Mubeshshsera Awais (march, 2017) : Areas of the developing world are
populated with poor people unable to fulfill the basic needs for Clean water and India is one
of them . Water treatment plant is being designed for proper filtration of water. Treating it
properly after all treatment process or trying to manage the good condition in water. It has
being planned to implement this design scheme in the village under the sanction of Village
Panchayat and other govt.bodies. Rapid sand filters are very common in all conventional
water treatment plants. The major problem associated it is stratification, which restrict the
complete utilization of sand bed used. Higher filtration rates even can be achieved. However,
the use of such techniques is limited in India due to unavailability of filter materials apart
from sand. Capping of existing rapid sand fillers can be the promising method of improving
the performance of rapid sand filters. Capping is a process of covering the filtration media by
appropriates caps such as Anthracite coal, Bitminous coal, Crushed coconut shells, etc. The
attempt is made to sudy the efect of capping of RSF by the use (O coconut shell as a capping
media by pilot scale study. The pilot scale study has shown very encouraging results.
Comparative study shown that higher rate of filtration is possible along with higher filter run
and less backwash requirement.

Bibhabasu Mohanty (may,2017 ) : Day by day the quality of drinking water is

deteriorating,. Hence it is a need of the time to supply clean pue safe drinking water to the
public. Sand filtration is one of the techniques pəsn for to obtain the clean water According to
the World Health Organization, water and sanitation are the primary drivers of public health.
The main objective of this research yIOM SI 01 mprove the filtration technologies to make
them more sustainable and accessible for the public. This study pəsnooJ uo developing
improved modified with operating methods for rapid sand filtration technology In this ue
attempt is made one modified rapid pues filter and compare conventional rapid sand filter.
The main objective to increase the overall efficiency of conventional Tapid pues filters by
some modification. For construction of modified filter PVC granules are pəsn as capping
material SB well SB ferric chloride also pasn Both the material help to achieve the lower
turbidity and total dissolved solid concentration Keywords: Sustainable, Construction, Rapid
Sand Filter, Modified, Technologies

6
Pramod.B.N (2018) : Today the water treatment is one of the most important and
complicated world issues. This study aimed to investigate the comparison of the efficiency of
slow sand filter and charcoal filter in purifying the given sample of Gangajala lake
water[located at Ranebennur, Karnataka, India] at two different points. The tests were
conducted on the different parameters such as pH, turbidity, total solids, dissolved oxygen
and BOD. The results shows that efficiency of charcoal filter is higher than the slow sand
filter in purification of given samples. The highest efficiency shows in the reduction of
turbidity, total solids and color of the samples.

Sakharkar Shifa (2018) : Water scarcity has been listed by the World Economic Forum
as the largest global risk in terms of potential impact over the next decade. Due to water
scarcity one-third of the global population get severely affected. There is 3% amount of fresh
water available in the earth but however lack of accessibility of water due to various factors,
humanity is facing a water crisis. So, in order to avoid water deficient future it has become
essential for every country all around the globe to take a step towards water conservation.
Apart from water scarcity one major area of concern is water quality. Lack of clean drinking
water has put billions of people's health at risk diseases like malaria, cholera, hepatitis A,
typhoid fever and many other diseases are spread because of the consumption of
contaminated water. That is why treatment of water before consumption is necessary. In view
of all the above parameters, this review study is to discuss about the various filtration
techniques available. Natural substitutes used as a filtering medium which are less expensive
or which may be a by-product of any agricultural or manufacturing process. For example,
tamarind seed, which act as natural coagulant and other natural materials like bentonite clay,
red soil etc. The filtration systems usually are of gravitational type and the backwashing
process of pressure type.

Hemath Kumar . R ( 2019) : A study was carried out to determine about Rapid Sand Filter,
which are very commonly used in Conventional Water Treatment Plants. The Rapid Sand
Filter beds are suffering by the problems like Mud ball formation, unsatisfactory effluent.
Dual Media and multimedia filters can overcome the limitations of RSF. Turmeric root
Capping of Crushed Coconut shell, charcoal. Designing Dual Media Filter Capped with
Crushed Coconut Shell proves to be more efficient, economical and durable. The sample will
be collected from nearby water source which was highly turbid and having high amount of
total solids. The tests, which are conducted on sample, are pH, Total solids, Fluoride, Nitrate
It improves the performance of filter in terms of high filtration rate, high turbidity removal
and high decrease in percentage of total solids and thus making it more applicable Key
words: Rapid Sand Filter, Coconut Shell, Charcoal and Turmeric Root, pH, Total Solids,
Nitrate, Fluoride

7
Anna Cescon (2020) : In drinking water treatment, filtration plays an important role in
the multi-barrier approach employed for the removal of pathogens. The presence of
suspended solids and other particulate matter in water increases the resistance of most
microbes to disinfection. Therefore, high performance in the removal of particles achieved by
granular filtration can increase the disinfection efficiency. Although sand is one of the major
filter media, alternative media have been developed and used in recent years. In this review,
the performance of alternative media is compared with traditional sand/anthracite for
drinking water treatment. Advantages in the use of alternative media, especially glass media,
have been found, including high filtration performance in removing residual particles and
turbidity, minor modification requirements to the existing filtration configuration and slow
head loss development. However, before the employment of them in industry, additional tests
are recommended. In particular, full scale tests with variations in the operating conditions and
analyses of pathogen removal should be performed. Moreover, this paper reviews the
filtration processes and operating configurations which provide overall references to those
who are studying and working in the field of water technology and treatment. In this paper,
legislations/standards of safe drinking water are summarized as they are the driving force of
developing new treatment technologies; mathematical modules for predicting the media
filtration performance are briefed. Finally, future work on the application of alternative filter
media is recommended.

Mohsin Uddin (2022) : Scarcity of fresh drinking water has become a major concern in
various parts of the world recently. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a sustainable
polymer (polypropylene) and carbon (activated carbon from coconut shell) based water
treatment filter. The filter was made by integrating polypropylene nonwoven fabric on the top
of a two-inch layer of activated carbon and the traditional slow sand filter. The filter showed a
significant reduction in turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), biological oxygen demand
(BOD), pH, and concentration of heavy metals (HM) in the water samples collected from
Turag River, Bangladesh. The reduction efficiencies were more than 85%. The higher value
of reducing heavy metals, TDS, BOD, and pH might be explained by a higher particle
retention and adsorption capacity of the filter due to the notable higher specific surface area
of activated carbon and the pore size of the polypropylene filtration layer. The concentrations
of lead, zinc, iron, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and copper were examined in which the
filter showed a promising result; however, the removal efficiency of other potential heavy
metals is yet to be tested.

Margareth Msoka1 (2023) : This study presents a filter system for the removal of
pathogenic microorganisms from potable water using silver nanoparticle-modified silica
sand. While silica sand has potential applications in wastewater treatment, its effectiveness in
microbial filtration falls short. Thus, there is a need for an environmentally friendly
enhancement method. The silver nanoparticles were synthesized using Commelina maculata
leaf extracts, and their diameter ranged from 50 to 80 nm. The Ag NPs were immobilized on

8
silica sand, improving the modified sand's physicochemical properties. The filter system,
composed of Ag NP-modified silica sand packed in a glass column, reliably removed 98% of
the culturable E. coli population in water. The results suggest that the developed filter system
has potential use in drinking water disinfection in remote rural areas. However, further cost
analysis is required before scaling up for mass production and real-world use.

Razib Ahemed (2023) : Surface water is polluted because of anthropogenic activity.

Fresh and clean water is essential for all human beings living on the earth, yet it has been
observed that worldwide millions of people are still using water contaminated by bacteria,
toxic chemicals and other pollutants. So, there is a need for purification of water. The
significance of this work was to improve the quality of surface water by using adsorption
technique. In the recent study a low-cost water filter was designed for 17-liter capacity. The
filter media consisted of 4 layers including pebbles, sand, corncob, and activated carbon, 4
cm of each component. The filtration capacity of the filter could be improved by adding
0.0001 μm filter paper. This research is based on the quality of surface water of Dhepa River,
Sukh Shagor and sluice gate at Birganj in Dinajpur district. Samples of water from this source
were collected and analyzed for the physical and chemical characteristics such as pH, Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity, Hardness, Al-kalinity, Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD), Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphate and Sodium before and after filtration.
Results showed that these filter media reduced the level of TDS, Turbidity, Hardness, BOD,
Magnesium, Calcium , Sulphate and Sodium in appreciable amounts. Above all the
parameters except magnesium brought below the limits of drinking water quality parameters
given by World Health Organization. It was found that after filtering, surface water from
these sources were usable for various domestic purposes and this filter was more cost
effective than the other traditional filter available in the market .

DR.P.B.VYAS sardar patel (2023) : Day by day the quality of drinking water is
deteriorating. Hence it is a need of the time to supply clean and safe drinking water to public
Sand filtration is one of the techniques used for to obtain əy clean water. According to oy
World Health Organization, water and sanitation are the primary drivers of public health. The
main objective of this research work is to 1mprove the filtration technologies to make them
more sustainable and accessible IOT the public This study focused uo developıng improved
modified operating methods for rapid sand filtration technology

Van Breukelen (2024) : Iron ( F e^ 2+ ) manganese ( M n^ 2+ ) and ammonium (NH4)

oxidation processes were studied in three single media and three dual media full-scale rapid
sand filters (RSFs) using reactive transport modelling (RTM) in PHREEQC and parameter
estimation using PEST. Here, we present the insights gained into the spatial distribution of Fe
and Mn mineral coatings in RSFs and its influence on the oxidation sequence and rates. F e^
2+ and M n^ 2+ oxidation predominantly occurred simultaneously in the RSFs, contrary to

9
the expected sequential oxidation based on Gibbs free energy calculations. During
backwashing, RSF grains become fully mixed, which initiates heteroge neous M n^ 2+
oxidation on Mn-coated grains that end up in the top layer. The resulting grains have a mixed
Fe/Mn mineral coating, which is limiting heterogeneous M n^ 2+ oxidation due to the limited
Mn mineral surface avail-able. Mixed coatings did not seem to affect F e^ 2+ oxidation rates,
instead oxidation rates were increasing at lower PH. We found that RSPs can be designed to
spatially separate F e^ 2+ and M n^ 2+ oxidation, which results in optimal conditions for M
n^ 2+ oxidation. The RSF needs to consist of two layers with varying density to inhibit
mixing and complete F e^ 2+ oxidation should occur in the top layer. The developed RTM
can be used to estimate the depth at which Pe oxidation is complete, and thus the ideal
intersection depth of the two layers. A novel perspective is provided on how mineral coating
distribution in single and dual media filters influence removal rates and the sequence of
oxidation, which contributes to the design of more efficient groundwater filters.

John K Maiyo (2023) : Safe drinking water remains a major global challenge, especially
in rural areas where, according to UNICEF, 80% of those without access to improved water
systems reside. While water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases and deaths are
common outcomes of unsafe water, there is also an economic burden associated with unsafe
water. These burdens are most prominent in rural areas in less-developed nations. Slow sand
filters (SSFs), or biological sand filters (BSFs), are ideal water treatment solutions for these
low-resource regions. SSFs are the oldest municipal drinking water treatment systems and
improve water quality by removing suspended particles, dissolved organic chemicals, and
other contaminants, effectively reducing turbidity and associated taste and odor problems.
The removal of turbidity and dissolved organic compounds from the water enables the use of
low-cost disinfection methods, such as chlorination. While the working principles of slow
sand filtration have remained the same for over two centuries, the design, sizes, and
application of slow sand filters have been customized over the years. This paper reviews
these adaptations and recent reports on performance regarding contaminant removal. We
specifically address the removal of turbidity and microbial contaminants, which are of great
concern to rural populations in developing countries.

Sruthi Dasika (2023) : Safe drinking water remains a major global challenge, especially
in rural areas where, according to UNICEF, 80% of those without access to improved water
systems reside. While water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases and deaths are
common outcomes of unsafe water, there is also an economic burden associated with unsafe
water. These burdens are most prominent in rural areas in less-developed nations. Slow sand
filters (SSFs), or biological sand filters (BSFs), are ideal water treatment solutions for these
low-resource regions. SSFs are the oldest municipal drinking water treatment systems and
improve water quality by removing suspended particles, dissolved organic chemicals, and
other contaminants, effectively reducing turbidity and associated taste and odor problems.
The removal of turbidity and dissolved organic compounds from the water enables the use of

10
low-cost disinfection methods, such as chlorination. While the working principles of slow
sand filtration have remained the same for over two centuries, the design, sizes, and
application of slow sand filters have been customized over the years. This paper reviews
these adaptations and recent reports on performance regarding contaminant removal. We
specifically address the removal of turbidity and microbial contaminants, which are of great
concern to rural populations in developing countries.

Ayoola-Akinwunmi (2024) : It is pertinent to provide safe drinking water to the people

as quality of water keeps deteriorating. According to World Health Organization (WHO),
water and hygiene are the primary drivers of public health. Filtration is a water treatment
process used for removal of microorganisms and colloidal matters from raw water, therefore
this study aims at comparing the effects of sand and activated carbon when used separately in
rapid sand filters for water treatment. Fabrication of two models of the rapid sand filters were
carried out with 1.2mm stainless steel plates. One of the filters was loaded with gravel (grain
size 5mm) at the bottom and this was followed by coarse sand (grain size 3mm) and fine sand
(grain size 1mm) at the top. The second filter was loaded with gravel at the bottom and this
was followed by coarse sand, fine sand and capped with activated carbon. Raw water,
obtained from borehole was stored in a tank and made to pass through each of these filters
independently. Sample of the raw water was collected for laboratory analysis in addition to
samples of the treated water from each of the two rapid sand filters. The outcomes of the tests
reveal that the filtration processes had positive impact on the raw water but the filter capped
with activated carbon produced better quality water. The use of activated carbon as the
topmost material in a rapid sand filter is recommended as it enhances the quality of treated
water in parameters such as colour, conductivity, chloride, hardness, sulphate, total dissolved
solids, sodium, magnesium, iron and total plate count. The rapid sand filters would
afterwards be used for students’ practical to explain filtration as a water treatment process.

Kaldibek Abdiyev (2023) : Providing safe drinking water to people in developing

countries is an urgent worldwide water problem and a main issue in the UN Sustainable
Development Goals. One of the most efficient and cheapest methods to attain these goals is to
promote the use of slow sand filters. This review shows that slow sand filters can efficiently
provide safe drinking water to people living in rural communities not served by a central
water supply. Probably, the most important aspect of SSF for developing and less-developed
countries is its function as a biological filter. WASH problems mainly relate to the spread of
viruses, bacteria, and parasites. The surface and shallow groundwater in developing countries
around urban areas and settlements are often polluted by domestic wastewater containing
these microbes and nutrients. Thus, SSF’s function is to treat raw water in the form of diluted
wastewater where high temperature and access to nutrients probably mean a high growth rate
of microbes and algae but probably also high predation and high efficiency of the SSF.
However, factors that may adversely affect the removal of microbiological constituents are
mainly low temperature, high and intermittent flow rates, reduced sand depth, filter

11
immaturity, and various filter amendments. Further research is thus needed in these areas,
specifically for developing countries.

Dr. Doris van Halem (2024): Sand filtration is the most widely applied technology for
the production of drinking water worldwide. However, our understanding of the interacting
biological, physical and chemical removal processes remains limited. Sand filters are
attracting increasing attention, both in academia and practice, due to their sustainability and
robustness. In order to future-proof this nature-based technology, it is critical to enhance our
knowledge as well as develop new approaches for more efficient operation in existing and
new treatment trains. Therefore, this special issue calls for contributions related to the
removal of contaminants (e.g., geogenic contaminants, organic micropollutants, nutrients,
plastics) in filters, which includes (1) groundwater sand filters, (2) slow sand filters, (3) other
granular media filters to support biological processes, (4) decentralised applications (e.g.,
biosand), (5) novel applications of filtration processes in advanced treatment schemes (e.g.,
biofouling control reverse osmosis), and (6) novel process conditions that can boost filter
performance (e.g., flow, removal efficiency, footprint).

12
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS USED
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, materials and their properties used in the filtration process and tests
conducted on collected water samples were observed and mentioned.

3.2 MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

The raw materials that are used in the conventional and rapid sand filters are mentioned
below.
 Coarse aggregate
 Fine aggregate
 palm shells
 crushed dust
 Waste water

3.2.1 COARSE AGGREGATE

The material whose particles are of size are retained on IS sieve of size 4.75mm is
termed as coarse aggregate and containing only so much finer material as is permitted for the
various types described in IS :383-1970 is considered as coarse aggregate. The properties of
aggregate greatly affect the durability. Coarse aggregate also know as crushed stone or gravel,
it consists of particle larger than 4.75 mm in diameter, which provide strength, stability.
Aggregate was originally viewed as inert material dispersed through out the cement
paste largely for economic reason. It is possible, however , to take an opposite view and to
look on aggregate as a building material connected in to a cohesive whole by means of the
cement paste. In a manner similar to masonry construction. In fact, aggregate is not truly inert
and its physical, thermal and sometimes also chemical properties influence the performance
of the concrete. Aggregate is cheaper than cement and it is, therefore, economical to put in to
the mix as much of the former and as little of the later possible. But the economy is not only
the reason for using aggregate, it confers considerable technical advantages on concrete,
which as a higher volume stability and better durability than hydrated cement paste alone.
Aggregates should be of uniform quality to respect to shape and grading. The size of coarse
aggregated depends upon the nature of the work. The coarse aggregate used in this
experiment al investigation is 20mm and 10mm size, crushed and angular in shape as the
aggregate are free from dust before used in the concrete.

13
 Figure :- 2 COARSE AGGREGATE

3.2.1.1 The following tests have been conducted on coarse aggregates

 Specific gravity
 Fineness modulus
 Sieve analysis

3.2.1.2 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of mass of material to the mass of the same volume of
water at the stated temperature. The experiment was conducted as per IS 2386-1963 and the
vales are tabulated in table. Specific gravity of cement test is calculated by using the
apparatus “pycnometer”.

3.2.1.3 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate

The process of dividing a sample of aggregates into fractions of same particle size is
know as a sieve analysis and its purpose is to find fineness. The sieve analysis was carried out
using locally available river sand and tabulated in the table.

Table:-2 Properties of coarse aggregate

S.NO Property Value

1 Specific gravity 2.67

2 Fineness modulus 6.01

3 Nominal maximum size 20mm

3.2.1.4 characteristics of coarse aggregate

14
 The coarse aggregate particles range from 4.75mm to 40mm in diameter.it also in
shape coarse aggregate particles can be rounded, angular, or irregular in shape , the texture of
the coarse aggregate particles can have smooth or rough texture and the density of coarse
aggregate particles have the high density, typically ranging from 2.5 to 3.0 g/cm3.
The characteristics of coarse aggregates are Physical characteristics, mechanical
characteristics, chemical characteristics, durability characteristics, other characteristics. These
characteristics of coarse aggregate are important to consider in various construction and
engineering application such as concrete production, road production and building
foundations.

3.2.1.5 Importance of coarse aggregate

coarse aggregate provides essential strength and durability to concrete and other
construction materials, it is also improves the durability and reduces the risk of degradation
and damages, the use of coarse aggregate can help to reduce waste and promote sustability in
construction practices.
Coarse aggregate plays a vital role in the construction industry, providing strength,
stability, and durability to concrete and other building material it important cannot be
overstated, as it helps to improve driange, reduce shrinkage, and support heavy loads
additionally, coarse aggregate can be used to decorative and textured surfaces adding visual
appeal to construction projects from a particall perspective using coarse aggregate can also
help to reduce material costs as it can replace some of the cement and other materials needed.
Furthermore coarse aggregate can be sourced from sustauinable materials supporting
sustainable construction practices overall the importance of gthe of coarse aggregate lies in
its ability to enhance the structural integrity, aesthestic appeal, and sustainability of
construction projects.

3.2.2 Fine aggregate

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finally divided rock and mineral
particles. It’s a common point of soil, sediment, and rocks, and is found in various
environments including beaches rivers, deserts, and underground deposits. The size of the
fine aggregate is below 4.75mm. Fine aggregate can be natural or manufactured. The grade
must be throughout the work. The moisture content or absorption characteristic must
Pechiney monitored. The fine aggregate is used as natural sand obtain from the Godavari
confining to grading zone -2. The fine aggregate shall consist of natural and or subject to
approval other in materials with similar characteristics or combination having hard, strong,
durable particles. The use of concrete is being constrained by urbanization, mg regulations,
increased cost and environmental concrete.

15
 Figure 1 :- FINE AGGREGATE

3.2.2.1 The following tests have been conducted on fine aggregate

 Specific gravity
 Sieve analysis (fineness of sand)

3.2.2.2Specific gravity of fine aggregate

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of mass of material to the mass of the same volume of
water at the stated temperature. The experiment was conducted as per IS: 2386-1963 and the
values are tabulated in the table

Tabel - 1 Properties of fine aggregate

S.NO Properties Values

1 Specific gravity 2.60

2 Fineness modulus 2.32

3 Grading Zone - 2

16
3.2.2.3 FORMATION OF FINEAGGREGATE
Sand is formed through the weathering and erosion of rocks which breaks them down
into smaller particles. These particles are then transported away by natural forces like wind,
water, and ice and deposited in new location. The fine aggregate are essentially components
of concrete and their formation plays a crucial role in determining the properties of the final
product. The formation of fine aggregates involves a combination of geological and industrial
process that produce particles with varying properties. Understanding the sources, formation
process and properties of fine aggregate is essential for producing high quality concrete.

3.2.2.4 Characteristics of fine aggregate

The grain size of sand particles range from 0.0625 to 2 millimeters in diameter. The
texture of the sand can be coarse, medium, or fine grained and the color of the sand can range
from white to black depending on its composition. The sand has a high porosity, allowing
water to pass through. The fine aggregate are a crucial component of the concrete, and their
characteristics plays a significant role in determining the properties of the final product. The
characteristics of fine aggregate can significantly impact the properties of concrete, including
its workability, strength, durability and sustainability.

3.2.3 OIL PALM KERNAL SHELLS

Palm shells are hard, woody, and fibrous outer covering of palm fruits, particularly oil
palm and coconut palm. They are product of the palm oil and coconut industries. Palm shells
can help reduce dependence on fossil fuels and promote renewable energy. Using palm shells
ca)n help reduce waste and promote sustainable waste management practices. Palm shells can
provide an additional income stream for pal oil and coconut producers. Using palm shells can
help reduce green house gas emissions and promote sustainable development, this
introduction provides a solid foundation for understanding palm shells. Oil palm shells are
the hard outer shells surrounding the palm kernel seeds in the fruit of the oil palm tree. These
shells are a by product of the palm oil extraction process and are commonly used as a
renewable energy source are as a raw materials in various industries. Due to their high
calorific value and relatively low moisture content, oil palm keneral shells are often utilized
as biomass fuel in power plants, boilers, and industrial furnaces for heat and electricity
generation. Additionally, they can be used in the production of activated vcarbon , as a
component in animal feed, or as a substrate in gardening and landscaping applications.
Utilizing oil palm kernel shells helps to reduce waste and contributes to sustainable resources
management in the palm oil industry.

17
 Figure :- 3 PALM SHELLS
They are a renewable biomass esources and have gained significance as a
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Oil palm kernel shells are used a s a source of
bioenergy, particularly in biomass power plants, where are they burned to generate electricity
and heat. They are also utilized as a component in the production of activbated carbon ,
which finds application jn water purification and air purification.
Oil pal kernel shells are the hardwood, and fibrousouter covering of oil palm kernels,
obtained from the fruitof the oil palm tree. As by product of the palm oil industry, OPKS are
abundant and readly availabl. They are chareacterized by their high carbon and fiber content,
low ash content, and renewable and sustainable nature. OPKS have various uses inclyding as
a biomass fuel source, animal feed , compost and activated carbon . utilizing OPKS can
provide numerous benefits such as reducing dependence on fossil fuels, promoting renewable
energy, reducing waste and generating economic and environmental benefits.

Table :- 3 Physical properties of oil palm kernel shells

S.NO PROPERTY VALUES
1 Specific gravity(kg/m3) 1.37
2 Finess modulus 6.53
3 Bulk density 568
4 Moisture content 12.45

3.2.3.1 Characteristics of palm shells

Palm shells have a high carbon content, making them a potential biomass fuel
source, palm shells are rich in the fibers which can be used to produce paper, card board , and
other cellulose based products. Palm shells have a relatively low ash content, making them
suitable for use as a fuel source, palm shells are a renewable and sustainable resource as they
are by product of palm oil and coconut production.

18
3.2.3.2 Uses of palm shells
Palm shells can be used as a biomass fuel source for power generation replacing fossil
fuels and reducing green house gas emission ,palm shells can be used nutritious feed
supplement for livestock, particularly poultry and swine. Palm shells can be composted and
used as a natural fertilizer in agricylture and it can be converted into activated carbon which
can be used for water filtration, air purification and other application.

3.2.4 Crushed dust

Crushed dust, also known as quarry dust or crusher dust, is a fine powder produced as a
by-product of the crushing process in quarries and rock crushing plants. It is composed of
small particles of rock, typically ranging in size from 0 to 5 mm, and is often used as a
substitute for sand or other fine aggregates in construction projects. Crushed dust has several
benefits, including its ability to improve drainage, reduce soil compaction, and increase the
strength of concrete and other building materials. Additionally, using crushed dust can help
reduce waste and promote sustainability in the construction industry, as it is a recycled
material that would otherwise be discarded.
Crushed dust is a fine powder produced from the crushing process of rocks and stones in
quarries and rock crushing plants.Crushed dust, also known as quarry dust or crusher dust, is
a fine powder produced from the crushing process of rocks and stones. It is a by-product of
the quarrying and rock crushing process, and is often used as a substitute for sand or other
fine aggregates in construction projects.

Figure 4 :-Crushed dust

3.2.4.1 The following tests have been conducted on crushed dust

 Specific gravity
 Sieve analysis

3.2.4.2Specific gravity crushed dust

19
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of mass of material to the mass of the same volume of
water at the stated temperature. The experiment was conducted as per IS: 2386-1963 and the
values are tabulated in the table

Tabel - 4 Properties of crushed dust

S.NO Properties Values

1 Specific gravity

2 Fineness modulus

3 Grading

3.2.4.3 Formation of crushed dust

Crushed dust is formed through the following process:
Crushed dust plays a vital role in modern construction and civil engineering due to its
versatility and wide range of applications. It is frequently used as a base material beneath
pavements, concrete slabs, and roads, as it provides a stable and compacted foundation.
Additionally, it serves as a filler material between pavers and bricks, helping to lock them in
place and prevent shifting. In landscaping, crushed dust is favored for creating smooth
surfaces in pathways and driveways. Its fine, compactable nature makes it ideal for areas
where stability and uniformity are required, and it is often more cost-effective compared to
natural sand.
From an environmental perspective, the use of crushed dust contributes to sustainability
in the construction industry. Since it is a by-product of quarry operations, utilizing crushed
dust helps reduce waste that would otherwise be discarded. This makes it a responsible choice
for builders aiming to minimize environmental impact. Moreover, by using crushed dust in
place of natural sand or gravel, it can help conserve natural resources. However, it is
important to manage its use carefully, as excessive dust in the air during handling can
contribute to air pollution if not properly controlled.
Safety is another important consideration when working with crushed dust. Due to its fine
particles, it can become airborne during transportation, dumping, or mixing, potentially
causing respiratory irritation if inhaled without protection. It is recommended to wear
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), such as masks and safety glasses, when
handling or applying the material. Dust suppression methods, like wetting the material during
use, can also help minimize health hazards and maintain a safer working environment. When

20
stored and used correctly, crushed dust is a highly beneficial and manageable material in
various construction and landscaping settings.

3.2.4.4 Characteristics of crushed dust

Crushed dust, also known as crusher dust, stone dust, or quarry dust, is a fine material
that results from the crushing of rocks in quarry operations. It is characterized by its powdery
texture and small particle size, typically less than 5 mm. The color of crushed dust varies
depending on the source rock, commonly appearing in shades of grey, blue-grey, or brown.
Due to the mechanical crushing process, the particles tend to be angular in shape, which
contributes to excellent compaction properties. This makes crushed dust a preferred material
for forming a solid and stable base in construction projects such as paving, road sub-bases,
and pathways.
In terms of mechanical properties, crushed dust offers good shear strength and load-
bearing capacity when properly compacted, making it suitable for use in low to medium-load
applications. Chemically, its composition depends on the parent rock but is typically rich in
silicate minerals such as quartz and feldspar. Granite-based dust tends to be neutral to slightly
acidic in pH, whereas limestone-based dust can be alkaline. Water absorption is generally low
to moderate depending on the fineness of the dust.
Crushed dust is widely used in the construction industry for various purposes including
as a base material under concrete slabs and pavers, for filling voids between bricks, and in
some cases, as an additive in the manufacture of bricks and blocks. It is also occasionally
used in agriculture to improve soil structure, though typically in small proportions. The main
advantages of using crushed dust include its cost-effectiveness, sustainability as a recycled
material, and its ability to reduce waste from quarry operations. However, it does come with
some drawbacks. If not mixed with coarser aggregates, it can compact too tightly, leading to
poor drainage. It may also create dust when dry or become muddy when wet. Despite these
limitations, crushed dust remains a versatile and practical material in various construction and
landscaping applications.

3.2.5 Waste water

Wastewater is the used or contaminated water that is discharged from households,
industries, and institutions. It can contain a variety of pollutants, including physical,
chemical, and biological contaminants, such as susp ssended solids, nutrients, pathogens, and
toxic substances. Wastewater can come from various sources, including domestic sewage,
industrial effluent, agricultural runoff, and stormwater drainage. If not properly treated and
managed, wastewater can pose significant risks to human health, the environment, and the
economy. Effective wastewater management is essential to prevent water pollution, protect
public health, and conserve water resources for future generations.

21
 Wastewater is any used or contaminated water that is discharged from households,
industries, institutions, or agricultural activities. It can contain a variety of pollutants,
including:

 Physical contaminants (e.g., suspended solids)

 Chemical contaminants (e.g., nutrients, toxic substances)
 Biological contaminants (e.g., pathogens, bacteria)

Figure : 5 WASTE WATER

3.2.5.1 Sources of wastewater include:

 Domestic sewage
 Industrial effluent
 Agricultural runoff
 Stormwater drainage

Wastewater requires proper treatment and management to prevent water pollution, protect
public health, and conserve water resources . Wastewater can be broadly classified into two
main categorie blackwater and greywater. Blackwater contains human waste and is generated
from toilets, making it highly contaminated and requiring extensive treatment. Greywater, on
the other hand, comes from sources like sinks, showers, and washing machines. While it still
contains contaminants such as soap, grease, and food particles, it is less hazardous than

22
blackwater and can often be treated and reused more easily. Understanding these distinctions
helps in designing appropriate treatment and recycling systems.
The treatment of wastewater typically involves multiple stages. First is the primary treatment,
which removes large solids and debris through screening and sedimentation. This is followed
by secondary treatment, which uses biological processes to break down organic matter with
the help of microorganisms. Finally, tertiary treatment further purifies the water by removing
nutrients, pathogens, and other remaining impurities through chemical or physical methods
such as filtration and disinfection. Treated wastewater can then be safely released into the
environment or reused for non-potable purposes such as irrigation or industrial processes.
Improper disposal of wastewater poses serious environmental and health risks. If untreated or
inadequately treated wastewater is released into rivers, lakes, or oceans, it can contaminate
drinking water sources, harm aquatic life, and spread diseases among humans and animals.
Nutrient-rich wastewater can also lead to the overgrowth of algae in water bodies—a
phenomenon known as eutrophication—which depletes oxygen levels and disrupts
ecosystems. Therefore, effective wastewater treatment is essential to minimize its negative
impacts.
Proper wastewater management is crucial not only for environmental protection but also for
sustainable development. With growing populations and increasing water scarcity in many
regions, treating and recycling wastewater can help conserve freshwater resources.
Governments, industries, and communities must work together to implement efficient
wastewater systems, invest in modern technologies, and promote public awareness. By doing
so, we can protect public health, reduce pollution, and create a more resilient and sustainable
water future.

3.2.6 Ferric chloride

Ferric chloride, also known as iron(III) chloride, is a chemical compound with the formula
FeCl₃. It is composed of iron in its +3 oxidation state combined with three chloride ions. At
room temperature, it typically appears as a dark brown or yellowish solid and is highly
soluble in water, forming a brownish-yellow solution. When dissolved, it undergoes
hydrolysis, releasing hydrochloric acid and creating an acidic solution. Manufacturing
Ferric chloride is commonly produced by the reaction of iron with chlorine gas or by
oxidizing ferrous chloride. Industrially, it is synthesized by treating scrap iron with chlorine
gas or hydrochloric acid, resulting in a cost-effective and widely available product. The
compound is typically handled in its liquid form for ease of transportation and use in large-
scale applications.Treatment One of the most prominent uses of ferric chloride is in water and
wastewater treatment. It acts as a coagulant, helping to remove suspended particles and
organic matter from water. When added to water, it forms flocs that capture impurities, which
can then be filtered out. This process is vital for producing clean drinking water and treating
sewage Industry Beyond water treatment, ferric chloride finds use in several industrial

23
processes. It is widely used in the etching of printed circuit boards (PCBs) in the electronics
industry. In metallurgy, it’s used to chlorinate metals and as a catalyst in various chemical
reactions. Its oxidizing properties also make it useful in the production of certain pigments
and dyes. Considerations While ferric chloride is effective and useful, it can be hazardous if
not handled properly. It is corrosive to skin and eyes, and inhaling its fumes or mist can
irritate the respiratory tract. Proper protective equipment such as gloves, goggles, and masks
is essential when working with this compound. Additionally, it should be stored in corrosion-
resistant containers.Disposal Ferric chloride’s environmental impact is generally low when
used correctly, especially in water treatment where it helps improve water quality. However,
improper disposal can lead to soil and water contamination due to its acidity and
corrosiveness. Waste containing ferric chloride must be neutralized and treated before
disposal, following local environmental regulations to prevent harm to ecosystems. Ferric
chloride also plays a role in analytical chemistry, especially in qualitative analysis. It is used
to detect the presence of phenols in a substance. When ferric chloride solution is added to a
compound containing phenol groups, a characteristic color change—often violet, green, or
blue—occurs. This colorimetric reaction makes ferric chloride a valuable reagent for
identifying certain organic compounds in laboratory settings. In the medical field, ferric
chloride is sometimes used as a styptic agent, helping to stop minor bleeding by constricting
blood vessels and coagulating proteins. It’s occasionally found in topical preparations used
during minor surgeries or dental procedures. However, its use is limited and carefully
controlled due to its potential to cause tissue irritation and chemical burns if mishandled.

24
 Figure 6 :FERRIC CHLORIDE Figure 7 :FERRIC CHLORIDE

As industries increasingly focus on sustainability, ferric chloride remains a

favorable choice because of its efficiency and low environmental residue when properly used.
In water treatment, for example, it helps reduce pollutants and organic waste, improving the
quality of water released back into the environment. Additionally, many facilities are
adopting recycling and recovery systems to minimize ferric chloride waste and reduce
operational costs. Ferric chloride is widely available on the global market and is considered
economically significant, especially in sectors like municipal water treatment, electronics
manufacturing, and metallurgy. Its cost-effectiveness, versatility, and chemical properties
make it a preferred choice over some alternative chemicals. As urbanization and
industrialization continue to grow worldwide, the demand for ferric chloride is expected to
rise, particularly in developing countries striving to improve their water infrastructure.

CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
Water scarcity has become a pressing global issue due to rapid urbanization, industrial
growth, and climate change. As freshwater resources dwindle, the recycling and reuse of

25
wastewater have become crucial strategies for sustainable water management. One of the
most efficient and commonly used techniques for treating wastewater is filtration, particularly
the Rapid Sand Filter (RSF) system, due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and
effectiveness in removing suspended solids.
A conventional rapid sand filter typically consists of a layered bed of sand and
gravel through which water flows either by gravity or under pressure. While effective in
removing particulates, the system may not adequately remove finer particles, pathogens, or
organic matter without additional treatment steps. To address these limitations, modified
rapid sand filters are being developed with enhancements such as dual-media layers (e.g.,
anthracite and sand), finer grain size, or the addition of pre-treatment stages like coagulant
dosing or activated carbon layers. This study aims to compare the performance of a
conventional RSF and a modified RSF in the treatment and recycling of wastewater

CONVENTIONAL SAND FILTER

4.1 General
A conventional sand filter is a widely used method for removing suspended solids
and particulate matter from water and wastewater. It operates on the principle of mechanical

26
straining, sedimentation, and biological processes. Water flows through a bed of specially
graded sand, and as it passes through, impurities such as dirt, debris, and microorganisms are
trapped within the spaces between sand particles. This method is particularly effective for
reducing turbidity and improving the clarity of water, making it suitable for both potable and
non-potable applications.

The structure of a typical sand filter includes several layers of sand with varying grain sizes,
often arranged with coarser particles at the bottom and finer particles at the top. Beneath the
sand layer is a layer of gravel or pebbles, which supports the sand and helps with even
distribution of water. As water enters the filter from the top, it percolates through these
layers, allowing physical and sometimes biological filtration to occur. The filtered water is
then collected at the bottom and directed to storage or further treatment.

One of the key features of conventional sand filters is their ability to operate continuously
with minimal supervision, making them cost-effective and reliable in both small and large-
scale treatment plants. However, over time, the top layers of sand can become clogged with
trapped materials, reducing filtration efficiency. To restore performance, the filter undergoes
backwashing, a process that reverses the flow of water to remove the accumulated debris.
Backwashing is essential for maintaining consistent filter function and preventing system
failures.

Conventional sand filters are valued for their simplicity, low operational costs, and efficiency
in treating moderately polluted water. However, they are not designed to remove dissolved
substances or very fine particles such as viruses or some bacteria. As a result, sand filters are
often used in combination with other treatment processes, such as disinfection or chemical
treatment, to ensure comprehensive water purification. Despite these limitations, they remain
a cornerstone in many municipal and industrial water treatment systems due to their
effectiveness and ease of maintenance.

Figure 14 : Empty box Figure 15 : Design of conventional sand

filter

27
 Figure 16 : Conventional model Figure 17 : Collection of waste
water

Conventional sand filters come in different configurations depending on the scale and
purpose of the treatment system. Slow sand filters are typically used in municipal water
treatment plants, where water passes slowly through a sand bed over several hours. This
allows not only physical filtration but also biological processes to occur, as a layer of
microorganisms—called a schmutzdecke—forms on the surface of the sand. These
microorganisms help break down organic matter and capture pathogens, making slow sand
filters particularly effective in improving water quality without the need for chemicals.

In contrast, rapid sand filters are used in larger treatment systems where high flow rates are
required. These filters use coarser sand and have faster filtration rates, typically requiring
frequent backwashing to maintain efficiency. Rapid sand filters are often used as part of a
multi-stage water treatment system, following coagulation and sedimentation processes.
Because of their higher throughput, they are ideal for treating large volumes of water in urban
areas or industrial facilities where space and time efficiency are critical.

While conventional sand filters are highly effective at removing suspended solids and
improving water clarity, they do have limitations. They are not capable of removing chemical
contaminants, dissolved solids, or very fine pathogens such as viruses. Therefore, in drinking
water treatment, sand filtration is typically followed by disinfection processes such as
chlorination or UV treatment to ensure the water is microbiologically safe. Innovations in
filter media and design, such as dual-media or multimedia filters (which combine layers of
sand, gravel, and anthracite), are helping to improve filtration efficiency and broaden the
application of sand filters in modern water treatment practices.

The use of conventional sand filters is not limited to municipal water treatment plants—they
are also commonly found in residential, agricultural, and recreational settings. For example,
sand filters are frequently used in swimming pools to keep water clean and free of debris. In
agriculture, they help in filtering irrigation water, protecting drip systems from clogging.
Their adaptability and effectiveness in different environments make them a practical and
accessible solution for water filtration across a variety of sectors. With proper maintenance
and periodic cleaning, sand filters can provide reliable performance for many years,
contributing significantly to water conservation and public health.

28
4.2 MODIFIED SAND FILTER

A modified rapid sand filter is an improved version of the conventional rapid sand filter,
designed to enhance filtration efficiency and sustainability by incorporating alternative,
locally available materials. One such innovation includes the use of kernel palm oil shells and
crushed dust as part of the filtration media. This modification not only reduces dependence
on traditional sand and gravel but also provides a cost-effective and environmentally friendly
solution for water treatment, particularly in regions with abundant agricultural and quarry
waste.

Kernel palm oil shells, a by-product of the palm oil industry, are lightweight, porous, and rich
in carbon content. Their physical structure provides a large surface area that promotes the
adsorption of organic pollutants and microbial contaminants. When used as a top layer in a
filter, they can trap fine particles and even assist in biological treatment by supporting
microbial growth. Their inclusion helps improve the removal of color, odor, and organic
matter, which are often difficult to eliminate using standard sand filters alone.

Crushed dust, a fine material derived from stone quarrying and crushing processes, is another
valuable alternative. Its angular and compactable properties make it highly effective in
physically trapping suspended solids. When used as an intermediate or bottom layer in the
modified filter, crushed dust can enhance the mechanical straining capacity of the system. It
also adds weight and stability to the filter bed, allowing better control of water flow and
backwashing processes.

Figure 18 : palm oil shells Figure 19 : Crushed dust

Figure 20 : Design of
modified rapid sand filter Figure 21 : Deposition of waste water

29
The integration of these materials results in a multi-layered filtration system where each
material plays a specific role. Typically, the top layer is composed of palm kernel shells for
preliminary filtration and adsorption, followed by a layer of crushed dust for fine particle
removal, and then a base layer of coarse gravel or sand for structural support and drainage.
This arrangement ensures a higher removal efficiency of contaminants while maintaining
adequate flow rates. The system can also handle high loads of turbidity, making it suitable for
treating surface water or pre-treated wastewater.

One of the major advantages of this modification is its sustainability and cost-effectiveness.
Both kernel shells and crushed dust are often discarded as waste in agricultural and
construction industries. By repurposing them in water treatment, not only is waste minimized,
but operational costs are also significantly reduced. This makes the modified filter especially
beneficial for rural or low-income areas where access to conventional filtration materials may
be limited.

In addition to performance and cost benefits, the environmental impact of the modified filter
is positive. Using biodegradable and natural materials like kernel shells reduces the carbon
footprint of water treatment systems. Moreover, the use of crushed dust helps reduce the
environmental burden of quarry waste. Overall, the modified rapid sand filter incorporating
kernel palm oil shells and crushed dust is a practical, eco-friendly, and innovative approach
that aligns with the goals of sustainable water management and resource recovery.

4.3Potential of hydrogen
pH values are a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, with a range of 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 is considered neutral, while values below 7 indicate acidity and values above 7
indicate alkalinity. The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that each whole number change
represents a tenfold increase or decrease in acidity or alkalinity. pH values are crucial in
various fields, including chemistry, biology, environmental science, and medicine, as they can
affect the behavior of molecules, the growth of organisms, and the treatment of diseases.
Factors such as concentration of hydrogen ions, hydroxide ions, temperature, and
pressure can influence pH. Accurate pH measurement is crucial in various fields, including
chemistry, biology, medicine, and environmental science, and can be achieved using pH
paper, pH meters, or titration methods. Maintaining optimal pH levels is essential for proper
bodily functions, industrial processes, and environmental sustainability.

30
 Table 5 Standard table of pH

pH Water quality classification

0-3 Highly acidic

4-6 Acidic

6.5-7.5 Neutral (ideal for most uses)

7.5-8.5 Slightly alkaline (safe for most uses)

8.5-10 Alkaline

10-14 Highly alkaline

4.3.1 Tests on collected water sample and purified water sample

Figure 7 : PH Meter Figure :8 Testing of water

4.4 Estimation of total hardness
The estimation of total hardness in water is a crucial parameter in determining its
suitability for various uses, such as drinking, industrial processes, and irrigation. Total
hardness is a measure of the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in water, which
can cause scaling, corrosion, and other problems. The estimation of total hardness is typically
expressed in terms of milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm) of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The most common method for estimating total hardness is the titration
method, which involves reacting the water sample with a standardized solution of EDTA
(ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) until all the calcium and magnesium ions are complexed.
The amount of EDTA required to reach the endpoint is directly proportional to the total
hardness of the water sample.

31
 Total hardness plays a crucial role in determining the quality and suitability of water
for various uses. Excessive levels of total hardness can lead to scaling, which can clog pipes,
damage appliances, and reduce the efficiency of heating and cooling systems. On the other
hand, water with very low total hardness can be corrosive, leading to leaching of metals from
pipes and fixtures. Total hardness also affects the taste, odor, and appearance of water, with
high levels of calcium and magnesium ions causing a bitter taste and a cloudy appearance.
Furthermore, total hardness can impact the effectiveness of soap and detergent, making it
difficult to lather and clean. In industrial processes, total hardness can affect the efficiency
and lifespan of equipment, such as boilers and cooling towers. Therefore, monitoring and
controlling total hardness levels is essential to ensure the quality and safety of water supplies.

Table :6 standard table for total hardness of water

Hardness level Concentration (mg/l)

Soft 0-60 mg/l

Moderate hardness 61-120 mg/l

Hard 121-180 mg/l

Very hard >180 mg/l

Figure 9 : Titration process Figure 10: EDTA and C aCo3

solutions

4.5 Estimation of chloride concentration

32
 Chloride concentration refers to the amount of chloride ions (Cl ⁻) present in a
solution, commonly measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm).
Chlorides are naturally found in water, soil, and various industrial processes, playing a crucial
role in maintaining water quality and biological functions. While essential for osmotic
balance in living organisms, excessive chloride levels can lead to environmental pollution,
corrosion of infrastructure, and negative effects on plant and aquatic life. High chloride
concentrations often result from industrial discharge, road salt usage, and agricultural runoff,
making their monitoring essential for environmental sustainability. In industries, chlorides are
used in manufacturing, food processing, and water treatment, while in agriculture, excessive
chloride in irrigation water can harm crops and reduce soil fertility. Additionally, high
chloride intake in drinking water may pose health risks, especially for individuals with
hypertension or kidney-related conditions. Regular monitoring and control of chloride levels
are crucial for ensuring water quality, public health, and ecological balance.
Chloride concentration refers to the amount of chloride ions (Cl ⁻) present in a
solution, typically measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm).
Chlorides are among the most common anions found in natural water bodies, originating
from geological sources, seawater intrusion, industrial activities, and human-made pollutants
like road salts and wastewater discharge. While chloride is essential for maintaining osmotic
balance in living organisms, high concentrations can negatively impact water quality,
infrastructure, agriculture, and aquatic ecosystems.
In drinking water, excessive chloride levels can lead to a salty taste and
potential health risks, particularly for individuals with hypertension or kidney disorders. In
agriculture, irrigation water with high chloride content can cause soil salinization, reducing
crop yield and damaging plant roots. Industrial sectors such as food processing,
pharmaceuticals, and water treatment rely on controlled chloride levels to ensure product
quality and process efficiency.
Additionally, chloride plays a role in corrosion, as high concentrations in water
accelerate the deterioration of metal pipes and infrastructure. Monitoring chloride levels is
crucial for environmental management, regulatory compliance, and maintaining the health of
natural and human-made water systems.

33
 Table : 7 Standard table for the chloride concentration

Category Concentration(mg/l) Remarks

Ideal or low 0-50 mg/l No noticeable taste

Moderate 51-200 mg/l Slight taste in sensitive

inividuals

High 201-500 mg/l Salty taste, may cause

corrision

Excessive >500 mg/l Unacceptable taste,potential

health concerns

Figure 11 : Titration process Figure 12 : Titration process

4.6 Total dissolved solids

34
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) refer to the combined content of all inorganic and organic
substances dissolved in a liquid, primarily water. These solids can include minerals, salts,
metals, and other compounds that are small enough to pass through a filter with a pore size of
2 microns or less. TDS is commonly measured in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per
liter (mg/L) and serves as an important indicator of water quality. High levels of TDS can
affect the taste, odor, and overall safety of water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use.
The sources of TDS in water can be natural or man-made. Natural sources include geological
formations, mineral deposits, and the dissolution of rocks and soils. Human activities such as
agricultural runoff, industrial waste, sewage discharge, and the use of chemical fertilizers also
contribute significantly to TDS levels. While some dissolved solids, like calcium and
magnesium, are essential for human health, excessive concentrations of harmful substances
such as lead, arsenic, or nitrates can pose serious health risks.
Controlling TDS levels is crucial for maintaining water quality. Filtration methods such as
reverse osmosis, distillation, and deionization are commonly used to reduce high TDS
concentrations in water treatment processes. Regular monitoring of TDS helps ensure water
remains safe for consumption and various applications. In general, while low to moderate
TDS levels can enhance water’s taste and mineral content, excessively high levels may
indicate contamination and require corrective measures.
Table 8 Standard table for TDS

TDS Range mg/l Water quality classification

0-50 Excellent
51-150 Good
151-300 Fair
301-500 Poor
501-1000 Very poor
1000+ Unacceptable

Figure :12 Apparatus of TDS Figure

CHAPTER 5

35
 RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

H
POTENTIAL OF HYDROGEN METER (P )

Standard table for PH value

PH Value Water quality classification

0-3 Highly acidic
4-6 Acidic
6.5-7.5 Neutral (ideal for most uses)
7.5-8.5 Slightly alkaline (safe for most
uses)
8.5-10 Alkaline
10-14 Highly alkaline

H
P Results of collected water samples

Description of water Temperature PH value

sample
Unpurified water 250C 4.36
sample
Conventional Purified 250C 7.42
water sample
Modified rapid sand 250C 7.20
filter purified water

36
 Estimation of chloride concentration

Category Concentration (mg/L) Remarks

Ideal or low 0-50 mg/L No noticeable taste

Moderate 51-200 mg/L Slight taste in sensitive

individuals

High 201-500 mg/L Salty taste ,may cause

corrosion

Excessive >500mg/L Unacceptable taste, potential

health concerns

Standard table for chloride concentration

Chloride concentration

- Volume of Initial Final results

water readings readings
sample

Conventional 20 ml 0 41.5 ml 1029.8225

Purified mg/L
sample

Unpurified 20 ml 0 44.5 ml 1104.2675

sample mg/L

Modified 20 ml 0 40 ml 992.6
rapid sand
mg/L
filter purified
water sample

37
 Estimation of total hardness

Standard table for total hardness

Hardness level Concentration(mg/L or ppm as

caco3)

Soft 0-60 mg/L

Moderately hardness 61-120 mg/L

Hard 121-180 mg/L

Very hard >180 mg/L

Table for taken water samples

- Volume of Initial Final EDTA Results

water readings readings
sample

Conventional 20ml 0 7ml 7 350mg/L

purified
water sample

Unpurified 20ml 7ml 45ml 38ml 1900mg/L

water sample

Modified 20ml 0ml 42ml 34ml 1700mg/L

rapid
purified
water sample

38
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Standard water table for total dissolved solids

TDS Range (mg/L) Water quality classification

0-50 Excellent

51-150 Good

151-300 Fair

301-500 Poor

501-1000 Very poor

1000+ Unacceptable

Total solids in unpurified & purified water

- Unpurified total solids Purified total solids Modified Rapid Sand

Filter Water Sample
Total Solids

- 73.630mg 67.930mg 65.735mg

Water with crossable 73.640mg 67.925mg 65.720mg

( results)

Total solids 0.040mg 0.005mg 00.015mg

39
 Dissolved solids in unpurified and purified water

- - Water with Dissolved solids

crossable (results)

Unpurified 43.730mg 43.722mg 0.008mg

dissolved solids

Purified dissolved 32.540mg 32.536mg 0.004mg

solids

Modified Rapid 32.200mg 32.186mg 0.014mg

Sand Filter Water
Sample Dissolved
Solids

CHAPTER 6

40
 CONCLUSIONS

6.1 Summary and Final Observations

This project focused on the design and comparative study of conventional and modified rapid
sand filters for the purpose of wastewater recycling. Two filtration systems were evaluated in
terms of their construction, functionality, filtration efficiency, sustainability, and applicability
in varied water treatment scenarios. The conventional rapid sand filter, while well-established
and widely used, has limitations in performance and environmental sustainability. In contrast,
the modified rapid sand filter, which utilized palm kernel shells and crushed dust as
alternative filter media, demonstrated enhanced performance across several important
parameters.

The conventional rapid sand filter primarily relies on mechanical straining and sedimentation
to remove suspended particles from water. Its filtration bed, composed mainly of graded sand
supported by gravel, functions effectively in reducing turbidity and larger particulates.
However, it lacks the capacity to significantly reduce dissolved organic matter, odor, color,
and fine pathogens, especially in cases of high-strength wastewater. Regular backwashing is
required to maintain its function, and it often needs to be paired with chemical disinfection or
coagulation for complete treatment.

The modified system incorporated locally available, sustainable materials—palm kernel

shells and crushed dust—to enhance the filtration process. Palm kernel shells provide a
porous, adsorptive, and biologically active surface, improving removal of organics and
supporting microbial breakdown of contaminants. Crushed dust, a by-product of stone
quarrying, adds fine filtration capability and structural compactness. The integration of these
waste materials improves not only the filter’s treatment capacity but also reduces cost and
environmental burden.

6.2 Comparative Performance Analysis

From a performance standpoint, the modified rapid sand filter consistently outperformed the
conventional system in key areas. Tests showed improved removal rates of suspended solids,
turbidity, and organic contaminants. The presence of palm kernel shells helped trap finer
particles and facilitated microbial action, while the layer of crushed dust enhanced
mechanical filtration. These improvements resulted in clearer effluent and reduced pollutant
concentrations even under higher influent loads.

Another key finding was the extended operation time before clogging. The modified filter
exhibited slower buildup of filtered materials at the top layer, reducing the need for frequent
backwashing. This makes the system more operationally efficient, particularly in regions with
limited water and energy resources for maintenance operations.

From a hydraulic perspective, the flow rate in the modified system remained within
acceptable limits, confirming that the inclusion of alternative media did not compromise
throughput. Instead, it optimized the balance between filtration rate and contaminant removal.

41
Furthermore, both systems were compared under conditions simulating real wastewater loads.
The modified filter managed variable influent conditions better, which is crucial for
decentralized or rural applications where influent quality often fluctuates. This adaptability
indicates a robust and resilient system capable of serving multiple sectors such as agriculture,
domestic reuse, and industrial pre-treatment.

6.3 Environmental and Economic Implications

One of the most significant contributions of this study is the focus on sustainable material use
in filtration systems. Palm kernel shells are an abundant agricultural by-product, especially in
regions with palm oil processing industries. Crushed dust, similarly, is a quarry waste
material often discarded in large quantities. Repurposing these waste materials addresses two
critical issues simultaneously: reducing the environmental burden of solid waste and lowering
the cost of water treatment infrastructure.

The modified rapid sand filter thus aligns with the principles of a circular economy, where
waste from one process becomes input for another. It represents a tangible step toward green
engineering and sustainable water management, particularly in developing regions where
conventional materials are either expensive or difficult to source.

Economically, the savings in material procurement and extended filter life directly reduce
operational expenses. When scaled, these savings become even more significant in large-
scale treatment systems or community-level water recycling programs. Moreover, local
sourcing of filter media can generate employment and encourage community participation in
water management.

The environmental benefits extend further. The biodegradable nature of kernel shells reduces
long-term ecological impact, while the reuse of crushed dust minimizes quarry site
accumulation. In terms of carbon footprint, the modified system has a lower embodied energy
than filters relying solely on processed industrial materials.

6.4 Recommendations and Future Scope

Based on the comparative study, the following recommendations are proposed for further
development and application:

1. Pilot-scale deployment of the modified rapid sand filter in rural and peri-urban
communities should be encouraged to validate its long-term performance under
varying real-life conditions.
2. Further research could explore the combination of the modified filter with solar
disinfection, activated carbon, or UV treatment to create a more comprehensive water
purification system.
3. Optimization of filter media ratios and layering sequence may enhance removal
efficiency even further, especially for specific contaminants like heavy metals or
emerging pollutants (e.g., pharmaceuticals).

42
 4. Long-term life cycle assessment (LCA) and cost-benefit analysis should be conducted
to fully understand the economic and environmental advantages over conventional
systems.
5. Training modules and community awareness programs can be introduced to promote
the adoption of such low-cost filtration systems at the household or institutional level.

In conclusion, the modified rapid sand filter presents a significant advancement in the domain
of sustainable wastewater treatment technologies. It not only improves upon the limitations of
the conventional model but also promotes environmental stewardship through resource reuse
and local innovation. As water challenges continue to rise globally, such practical, efficient,
and scalable solutions will play a crucial role in ensuring water security and resilience for
future generations.

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 IS CODES
General Water Treatment and Filtration
1. IS 8419 (Part 1 & 2):1993 – Requirements for rapid gravity filters
2. IS 8419 (Part 2):1985 – Design and construction of slow sand filters
3. IS 10500:2012 – Drinking Water Specification
4. IS 2490 (Part 1):1981 – Tolerance limits for industrial effluents discharged into
surface waters
5. IS 3025 – Methods of Sampling and Test (Physical and Chemical) for Water and
Wastewater (Multiple parts, e.g., pH, turbidity, solids, BOD, COD, etc.)
Filter Media and Materials
6. IS 3346:1980 – Method of determination of thermal conductivity of insulating
materials by guarded hotplate apparatus (used in material testing)
7. IS 2720 (All Parts) – Methods of test for soils (useful for crushed dust testing)
8. IS 383:2016 – Specification for coarse and fine aggregates for concrete (quarry dust
falls under this)
9. IS 456:2000 – Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete (if structure
aspects of filter are included)
10. IS 10430:2000 – Criteria for design of lined sedimentation tanks (preliminary to
filtration)
Wastewater Treatment and Disposal
11. IS 2065:1983 – Code of practice for water supply in buildings
12. IS 1172:1993 – Code of basic requirements for water supply, drainage and sanitation
13. IS 17482:2020 – Guidelines for treated wastewater reuse for industrial purposes
14. IS 16205 (Part 1):2017 – Design and construction of septic tanks and wastewater
treatment systems
15. IS 5225:1969 – Recommendations for basic requirements of surface irrigation water
Recycled Water & Sustainable Systems
16. IS 15797:2008 – Recycled water for flushing applications
17. IS 16205 (Part 2):2017 – Design and construction of on-site sewage treatment and
disposal systems
18. IS 2470 (Part 1 & 2):1985 – Code of practice for installation of septic tanks
19. IS 11817:1986 – Guidelines for the design of filter beds in sewage treatment plants

46
20. IS 9234:1979 – Recommended practice for design and layout of effluent treatment
plants for tanneries

47