Diagrams

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2

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 1. Study of Numerical Aperture and
Acceptance Angle of Optical Fiber
Ex. No. : Date :

Aim
To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

Apparatus Required
O Laser light source
O Laser powder meter
O Optical fiber cables of various length
O Optical fiber connectors
O Numerical aperture jig
O Mandrel for optical fiber.

Formula
Numerical aperture NA = no sin a
Acceptance angle a = r/d

Procedure
Using laser, we can find the numerical aperture of the fiber optic cable. The given
source is connected to the optical fiber cable. The other end is exposed to the air medium in
the dark place. The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper.
Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen. The distance from the fiber end
to the circular image is measured using meter scale. The radius of the circular image is also
measured. Thus the acceptance angle is calculated. From the acceptance angle, the numerical
aperture of the cable is found by using the give formula.

Symbol Explanation Unit

no Refractive index of the air ––

a Acceptance angle radians

r Radius of the circular image metre

d Distance from the fiber end to circular image metre

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 Table: Determination of Numerical Aperture

Radius of
Distance between fiber and Acceptance
S. circular
circular image angle NA = n0 sin a
No. image
d x 10 –2 m a = r / d
r x 10 –2 m

30
 Physics Laboratory Max Marks
Internal Mark Assessment Marks Obtained

Preparation 10

Instrument Identification & Handling 10

Observation 10

Calculation & Result 10

Viva 10

Total 50

Result

Numerical aperture of optical fiber NA =

Acceptance angle a =

31
 Diagrams

Fig. 2.1 Determination of wavelength using Laser source

Fig. 2.2 Diffraction pattern

Calculation

Sin 
 = (N = 98425)
Nn

 = ...................................................

N = 98425 lines / metre

 =.......................................................... x 10–10 m

32
 2. Determination of the Wavelength of the Laser
Ex. No. : Date :

Aim
To determine the wavelength () the given laser light using diffraction grating.

Apparatus Required
1. Diode laser source
2. Grating
3. Screen
4. Paper & Pencil
5. Meter scale etc.,

Formula
Wavelength of the laser light,
Sin
 = Nn Å
Where

Symbol Explanation Unit

 Angle of diffraction degree

n Order of diffraction ---

N Number of lines per meter in the grating lines / metre

Wavelength ()
Wavelength is defined as the distance between two successive troughs or crests in a
electromagnetic wave, where crest is the maximum displacement of the electromagnetic wave
in the positive direction and trough is the maximum displacement of the electromagnetic
wave in the negative direction.

Procedure
i. Determination of wavelength of laser using Grating
The given laser source is switched ON and the laser beam is passed through the grating.
The diffracted rays are collected on a screen. In the diffraction pattern, the circular spot
at the centre and the other orders on either side will be seen as shown in Fig. 9.2.

33
 Table – 1

To find the wavelength of laser Distance between grating and the screen D = ............... x 10–2 m

Reading for the diffracted image

Mean  = Sin
Left Side Right Side =
1  2 Nn
Order Distance of Distance of 2
of tan 2 2 =
different orders X different orders X  X 
 X 
diffraction =  tan-1  
from the central from the central
 D   D 
on spot spot degree
degree degree Å
(m) (m)

34
 The distance between the central spot and first, second, third order are measured and
Tabulated (Table (1)). The distance between the grating and screen D is also measured.
Sin 
The wavelength of the given laser source is determined using the formula  = Å
Nn
N= 98425 lines / metre

Physics Laboratory Max Marks

Internal Mark Assessment Marks Obtained

Preparation 10

Instrument Identification & Handling 10

Observation 10

Calculation & Result 10

Viva 10

Total 50

Result
The wavelength of the given laser light () = Å

35
 Diagrams

Fig. 10.1 Determination of particle size using diode LASER

Fig. 10.2 Diffracted concentric rings on the screen

72
 10. Determine the Size of the Lycopodium
Powder Using Laser
Ex. No. : Date :

Aim
To determine the size of the Lycopodium Powder using laser.

Apparatus Required
1. He - Ne laser or diode laser source
2. Fine micro particles having nearly same size (say lycopodium powder)
3. Glass plate
4. Screen
5. Meter scale

Formula
Grain size (diameter) ‘2d’ of the grain
nD
2d = metre
xn
where

Symbol Explanation Unit

n Order of the diffraction –

 Wavelength of the laser light used Metre

D Distance between the glass plate and the screen Metre

xn Distance between central bright spot and the nth fringe Metre

Theory
Determination of the particle size
When laser light is passed through a glass plate spreaded with fine particles, the light
gets diffracted by the particles and the diffracted light produces concentric rings on the
screen. The particle or grain size is determined by measuring the radii of the rings.

Procedure
Determination of particle size
A clean transparent thin glass plate is taken. The lycopodium powder should be
uniformly sprinkled over it. The glass plate sprinkled with particles should be kept

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 Table - 1
To find the size of the particle size

Distance between Distance between the

Order of Particle size
S. screen and glass central bright point nD
diffraction 2d =
plate (D) and nth fringe (X )
No. n Xn

(cm) (n) (cm) x 10–5 m

1.
2

2.
2

3.
2

Mean (2d) =................................. x 10–5 m

Calculation

nD
2d = ( = 690 nm)
xn

 = .......................................................................x 10–9 m

D = .......................................................................x 10–2 m

xn = ........................................................................x 10–2 m

2d = ....................................................................... x 10–5 m

74
vertically in between the laser source and the screen. The incident laser beam on the glass
plate undergoes diffraction by particles and diffraction pattern is seen on the screen. The
diffraction pattern is marked on the screen. From the center point, radius of first order bright
ring is measured (Table). The same procedure is repeated for other orders also. The distance
between the screen and glass plate is varried and the experiment is repeated.
nD
Then using the formula, 2d = the average particle size of the given powder is
xn
determined.

Physics Laboratory Max Marks

Internal Mark Assessment Marks Obtained

Preparation 10

Instrument Identification & Handling 10

Observation 10

Calculation & Result 10

Viva 10

Total 50

Result
The size of the given particle (2d) = metre

75
 Diagram

Fig. 11.1 Ultrasonic Interferometer

76
 11. Determine the Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves and
Compressibility of the Given Liquid by Formation of
Acoustical Grating - Ultrasonic Interferometer
Ex. No. : Date :

Aim
i. To determine the velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid using Ultrasonic
Interferometer.
ii. To determine the compressibility of the given liquid

Apparatus Required
Ultrasonic Interferometer, measuring cell, frequency generator, given liquid etc.,

Formula
i. Velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid v= n  ms-1
Where,
Wavelength  = (2d / x) metre
ii. Compressibility of the given liquid K = (1/ v2 ) m2 N-1

Expression of the Symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

n Frequency of the generator which excites the crystal Hertz

 Wavelengths of Ultrasonics Metre

 Density of the given liquid (1000 Kgm-3) Kgm-3

d Distance moved by the micrometer screw Metre

x Number of oscillations Unit

Theory
An ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the velocity of
Ultrasonic waves in liquid with a high degree of accuracy. Here the high frequency generator
generates variable frequency, which excites the Quartz Crystal placed at the bottom of the
measuring cell. The excited Quartz crystal generates Ultrasonic waves in the experimental
liquid. The liquid will now serve as an acoustical grating element. Hence when Ultrasonic

77
 Table - 1 : To Find the Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves in the Liquid.

Type of liquid = Frequency of the generator = ............... Hz

No. of Reading for ‘x’ oscillations d  = 2d/ x Velocity

S.
oscillations PSR HSC TR v = n
No.
(x) x 10-3 m div x 10-3 m x 10-3 m x 10-3 m ms-1

78
waves passes through the rulings of grating, successive maxima and minima occurs, satisfying
the condition for diffraction.

Initial Adjustments
In high frequency generator two knobs are provided for initial adjustments. One is
marked with ‘ Adj ‘ (set) and the other with ‘Gain’ (sensitivity). With knob marked ‘Adj’
the position of the needle on the ammeter is adjusted and with the knob marked ‘gain’ the
sensitivity of the instrument can be increased for greater deflection, if desired.

Procedure
The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator
through a shielded cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid before switching
ON the generator. Now, when the frequency generator is switched ON, the Ultrasonic waves
move normal from the Quartz crystal till they are reflected back by the movable reflector
plate. Hence, standing waves are formed in the liquid in between the reflector plate and the
quartz crystal.
The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw
such that the anode current of the generator increases to a maximum and then decreases to a
minimum and again increases to a maximum. The distance if separation between successive
maximum or successive minimum in the anode current is equal to half the wavelength of
the Ultrasonic waves in the liquid. Therefore, by noting the initial and final position of the
micrometer screw for one complete oscillation (maxima – minima – maxima) the distance
moved by the reflector can be determined.
To minimize the error, the distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw is noted for ‘x’
number of oscillations (successive maxima), by noting the initial and final reading in the
micrometer screw and is tabulated. From the total distance (d) moved by the micrometer
screw and the number of oscillation (x), the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be calculated
using the given formula.
After determining the velocity of the Ultrasonic waves in liquids, the compressibility of
the liquid is calculated using the given formula.

79