SYLLABUS

S.No Course Code List of Experiments RBT

1. Determination of Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil AP
Stewart and Gee method.
2. 23PHS02 / Determination of characteristics of RC circuit to find the time constant AP
3. 23PHS04 Determination of characteristics of LCR circuits AP
4. Determination of Hysteresis loss. AP
5. Determine the Specific resistance- Carey fosters bridge AP
6. Determination of wavelength, particle size and angle of divergence AP
using diode laser source.
7. Determination of frequency of transverse and longitudinal wave AP
23PHS04
modes –Melde’s experiment and characteristics of Simple harmonic
motion –Simulation lab.
8. Determination of lattice constant of cubic crystal structure. AP
Out of Syllabus (As per AICTE Model Curriculum)
9. To find the wavelength of sodium light using prism AP
10. To determine the wavelength of Diode laser using transmission grating AP
11. To determine the wave length of sodium light by Newton’s rings method AP
12. To determine the wave length of sodium light using a diffraction grating AP
13. Find the refractive index of given liquid using Newton’s rings method. AP
14. Experiment on moment of inertia measurement using Torsional Pendulum AP
15. Diffraction and interference experiments (from ordinary light or laser pointers) AP
Life Skills Experiments

16. Determination of pressure required to shut off the fuel pump nozzle. E
17. Determination of capacitance required to shut off the circuit in a circuit breaker. E
18. Determination of earth, neutral and phase line in a circuit. E
 INDEX

S.No
Date Name of the Experiment Marks Staff sign
Wavelength of the laser beam

Fig. 1 Laser experimental setup

Fig 2. Laser Grafting

Exp.no :
LASER PARAMETERS MEASUREMENT
Date :

Aim
To determine (a) Wavelength of a given laser source using grating.

Particle size of the given lycopodium powder using laser source.

Acceptance angle and numerical aperture of a given optical fiber.

Apparatus required:
Laser source (diode laser), grating, lycopodium powdered glass plate, optical fiber, numerical
aperture jig, screen and scale.

Formula:

Sinθ
Wavelength of the laser source using grating, λ Ǻ
Nm
θ - angle of diffraction in degrees
N- number of lines per meter in grating (lines/meter) n - order
of diffraction grating
λ - wavelength of laser beam in Ǻ
nD m
Particle size 2d =
Xn
n - order of diffraction.
λ -wavelength of laser beam in Ǻ

xn - distance between central bright spot and the nth ring (X10-2 m).
D - distance between glass plate and the screen (X10-2 m).
Acceptance angle   tan 1 r/d degree

Numerical aperture NA = nosin

r - radius of circular image (X10-3 m).
d - distance from fiber end to circular image (X10-2 m).
no =1 (refractive index of air).
Table 1: To find the wavelength of the laser source
N = 6 x 105 lines/meter

Distance Distance of nth tan 1 (𝒚/𝒙)

S.No between the Order of order from Sinθ
grating & (degree) λ=
spectrum central spot (y)
screen ( x) Nm
(m)
(X10-2 m)
(X10-2 m) (X10-10m)

1 2

1
2
2

3
2

Mean = _________X10 -10 m

Calculations:
1) Ө = tan-1(y/x) degree

Sinθ
2) λ  X10-10 m
Nm
 Background theory and Principle
a. Wavelength of laser source Principle

Diffraction grating

When a collimated beam of light passes through an aperture or if it encounters an obstacle (grating),
it spreads out and the resulting pattern contains bright and dark regions. This effect is called
diffraction, and it is characteristic of all wave phenomena. The diffraction angle is varies with
respect of velocity / wavelength of sources by using this relation we measure the wavelength of
laser beam by using diffraction angle and given formula.

Fig. 3 XRD diffraction pattern

Particle size determination

Principle
Laser diffraction is one of the most common techniques for particle size analysis. It is based
on the observation that the angle of (laser) light diffracted by a particle corresponds to the size
of the particle. In a complex sample containing particles of different sizes, light diffraction
results in a specific diffraction pattern.
Fig 4. Particle size determination experimental setup

Fig 5. Particle size determination by laser source

 Laser Diffraction
The beam gets diffracted by the particles at different angles depending on the particle size. The
different angles of diffraction are seen as specific diffraction patterns, which also depend on the
particle size. The diffraction pattern is then detected and analyzed by a complex algorithm that
compares the measured values to expected theoretical values. The result is a particle size
distribution (PSD).

Fig 6. Particle size distribution

Procedure:
To find the wavelength of the laser:

Diode laser is kept horizontally and switched ON. The grating is held normal to the laser beam. The
laser light is exposed to the grating and it is diffracted by it. On the other side of the grating on the
screen, the diffracted laser spots are seen. The distance of different orders from the centre spot are
measured. The distance between the grating and screen (x) is measured. By using the formula ‘θ’
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
is calculated. The wavelength of the laser light is found with the formula 𝜆 = Å.
𝑁𝑚

The number of lines in the grating is assumed to be 6 x 10 5 lines/meter.

Table 2: Particle size determination:
The wavelength of the laser beam: --------------------------

Radius of the
Distance between the Order of nD
th 2d =
S.No glass plate and screen D diffraction (n) n ring from
central spot X n Xn
(X10-2 m)
(X10-2 m) X10-6 m

1. 1

2. 2

3. 3

Mean = ...................... X10-6 m

Calculation:
nD
1) 2d = m
Xn
b. To find the particle size:

A glass plate is taken and a fine powder of the particle size in the range of micrometer is sprinkled
on the glass plate. This glass plate is kept between laser light and screen. Now laser beam gets
diffracted by the particles present in the glass plate. By keeping the distance between glass plate and
screen, circular fringes of different orders are seen on the screen. The distance between the central
bright point and nth fringe Xn for various orders of diffraction is measured.

Using the formula 2𝑑 = the particle size can be found. The experiment is repeated for

different distances.
c. To find the acceptance angle and numerical aperture:

The given laser source is connected to the optical fibre cable. The other end is exposed to the air
medium in the dark place. The emerging light is exposed on a screen. Now, we get illuminated
circular patch on the screen. The distance from the fibre end to circular image is measured. The
diameter of the circular image is measured and from that we can take radius. Thus, the acceptance
angle is calculated. From the acceptance angle, the numerical aperture of the cable is found by using
the given formula.

C. Numerical Aperture (NA) Theory

In fiber optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical

system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the
range of angles over which the system can accept or emit
light.

NA is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fiber’s

light acceptance cone. i.e. NA= Sin θa where θa, is called
acceptance cone angle.
 Numerical aperture and acceptance angle

Fig 7. Experimental setup for numerical aperture

Fig 8. Numerical aperture measurement

Simulation Link:
 Principle: Beam divergence / deviation:

Applications
1. To measure the wavelength and velocity of light using grating.
2. To find the numerical aperture of fiber optics.
3. Displacement lasers measure displacement, or a change in distance.
4. Use to monitor the position and motion of an object in real-time.
5. Other uses such as measuring step changes, thickness changes, liquid levels in a tank, shape
profiling.
 Table 3: To find Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle no = 1

Acceptance angle
Distance between Radius of
fibre end & circular image   tan 1 (r/d)
S.No circular image (d) (r) (degrees) NA = nosin θ
X 10-2 m X 10-3 m

Mean =

Calculation:

  tan 1 (r/d) NA = nosin θ

PRE VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Give the abbreviation of LASER.
2. Give any four properties of LASER
3. Mention different types of LASER
4. What type of LASER is used in this experiment?
5. When does a diode laser emits Laser light?
6. What are the applications of semi-conductor Laser?
7. Give the important components of laser device
8. Define numerical aperture
9. Define acceptance angle
10. Give the principle used in fiber optic communication system.
POST VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a diffraction grating and how does it work?

2. What factors can affect the accuracy of the wavelength measurement using a diffraction grating?

3. How does the size of the particles affect the diffraction pattern observed?

4. What factors affect the numerical aperture of an optical fiber?

5. What is the contribution of Albert Einstein in the field of lasers?

6. What is a maser?

7. Who invented the earliest prototype of lasers?

Inference:

Result:
Wavelength of the given diode laser source = ............ X10-10 meter

Average particle size of the given lycopodium powder = ............ X10 -6 meter.

Acceptance angle of the optical fiber = ............ degrees

Numerical aperture of the optical fiber = ...................

 Carey foster’s bridge circuit diagram and photo image

Fig 1. Carey Foster’s Bridge Circuit Diagram

Bt – Battery,
P,Q – Known resistances, R –Resistance box
K –Key,
X-Unknown resistance material (coil),
G-Galvanometer
H.R –High resistance, J-Jockey

Fig 2. Cary Foster’s Bridge experimental setup

Expt. No: SPECIFIC RESISTIVITY OF THE GIVEN COIL
Date : OF WIRE CAREY FOSTER’S BRIDGE

Aim:
To determine the specific resistivity of the given coil of the wire by comparing
two nearly equal resistances using a Carey Foster Bridge.

Apparatus required:
A Carey – Foster Bridge, coil of given wire, Leclanche cell, key, two equal resistances P and
Q, galvanometer, high resistance, jockey and resistance box.
Formula:

Resistance of the given coil of wire X = R l1  l2 /S ohm

 r2X
Specific resistivity of the given coil of wire ρ = ohm-m
l
R → known value of the resistance in the resistance box
S→ resistance per metre length of the bridge wire
0.1
S=
la  lb
X → unknown resistance
la ,lb → balancing lengths.
r → radius of the given coil of wire.
→ length of the given coil of wire (l  1m )

Carey Foster’s Bridge

Carey foster bridge is the method used for measurement of medium resistances. Carey foster
bridge is specially used for the comparison of two equal resistances.
Specific resistance

“The resistance offered per unit length and unit cross sectional area of that material when a
known quantity of voltage is applied at its end”
 Table: Determination of unknown resistance (x)

Resistance Balancing Length X10-2 m X = R l1  l2 /S

S.No R With R in left gap l1 With R in right gap l2 ohms
(ohms)

Mean =

Simulation Virtual Lab Link:

Principle:
Carey Foster Bridge is similar to the Wheatstone bridge. The potential fall is directly
proportional to the length of wire. This potential fall is nearly equal to the potential fall across
the resistance connected in parallel to the battery. L1 and L2 are balanced points when slide wire
is calibrated by shunting S with a known resistance and S’ is value of S when it is shunted by a
known resistance. Resistance P and Q are adjusted so that the ratio P/Q is approximately equal
to R/S. this can be achieved by sliding contact on slide.

Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by
balancing two legs of the bridge circuit.
Wheatstone Bridge Principle

The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null

deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances is equal, and no
current flows through the circuit. Under normal conditions,
the bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows
through the galvanometer. The bridge is said to be balanced
when no current flows through the galvanometer. This
condition can be achieved by adjusting the known resistance Fig 3. Wheatstone Bridge
and variable resistance.
Theory

The Carey- Foster Bridge consists of a one-meter wire of uniform radius stretched on a wooden
board. Carey- Foster Bridge has four gaps in which proper resistances can be inserted. The total
circuit is divided into two parts. One is primary circuit and the other secondary circuit. In primary
circuit the lechlanche cell, key is connected. In the secondary circuit the galvanometer, high
resistance and jockey is connected in series.
Procedure

The primary and the secondary circuits are connected as shown in circuit and the equal resistance
P and Q are connected in the two inner gaps. A resistance box R is included in the left gap and
an unknown resistance (X) is included in the right gap. Known value of the resistances (R) are
included and the balancing length (AJ) 1 is measure in each case and are tabulated. The positions
Calculation:

Resistance of the given coil of wire X = R l1  l2 /S

 r2X
Specific resistivity of the coil of wire ρ = l ohm-m
 VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Carey Foster Bridge?

2. Is it essential to have the value of resistance P and Q equal?

3. What will happen if the bridge wire is not uniform?

4. What is specific resistivity?

5. What is resistance?

6. What is the effect of temperature on resistance?

7. Give the principle of Carey Foster’s bridge

8. Give the principle of Whet stone’s bridge

9. When the bridge is most sensitive?

10. Why the resistance of inner ratio arms should be equal?

Inference:

Applications

 The circuit can be used for measuring unknown resistance lying between 1Ω to 100kΩ.
 It can be used for the measurement or comparison of nearly equal resistances.
 Used to measure resistance offered per unit length (specific resistance) of the slide wire.
(Used in light detector circuits.)
 To measure the resistance of cells.
POST VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the significance of the bridge balance point and how it is used to determine the resistance
of the wire.

2. Explain how the Carey Foster Bridge can be modified to measure the resistivity of materials with
different cross-sectional shapes (e.g., square or irregular).

3. Discuss the effect of wire uniformity on the accuracy of the Carey Foster Bridge measurement.

4. Why is it important to ensure the bridge is balanced during measurements?

5. What is null point in Carey Foster bridge?

6. Why we use Carey Foster Bridge instead of Wheatstone bridge?

Result:
1. Resistance of the given coil of wire (X) = ....................... ohms
2. Specific resistivity of the given coil of wire (ρ) = ........................ ohm-m
 Schematic Diagram

Fig 1. Stewart and Gee’s set up

Fig 2. Model graph

 Expt. No : STEWART AND GEE’S EXPERIMENT
Date :

Aim:
To determine magnetic induction at several points on the axis of a circular coil carrying
current using Stewart and Gee’s type of tangent galvanometer.
Apparatus:
Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer, Battery eliminator, Ammeter, commutator, Rheostat, Plug key,
Scale, connecting wires.

Principle:

When a bar magnet is suspended in two Magnetic fields B and Bh, it comes to rest making an angle θ
with the direction of Bh.

Formula:
The magnetic induction B at any point P on the axis of the coil is given by
1
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
tan 𝜃
.
Where
N - No. of turns in the coil
I - Current through the coil
R - Radius of the coil
d - Distance of the point P from the centre of the coil
Horizontal component of the earth’s field Be = 0.38 oersteds.

Magnetic Field

Magnetic fields are invisible regions around magnets or electric currents, where magnetic forces are
exerted on other magnets or moving charged particles. These fields play a pivotal role in various natural
phenomena and have applications in technology, such as in electric motors and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) machines.

Magnetic Field Induction

Total number of magnetic lines of force crossing unit area in perpendicular direction.
 Determination of magnetic coil deflection distance from the centre of the coil (d)
Table : Distance of deflection magneto-meter from centre of the coil (X) in meters = m

Left side Right side

S.No Mean d
d1 d2 d3 d4
1

Table Determination of magnetic induction (B)

Distance of Deflection in the Deflection in the magnetometer
deflection magnetometer East side West side

B = Be tan θ

induction B
θ=(𝜽𝒆+𝜽𝒘)/𝟐

Magnetic
magneto-

Tan θ
S.No meter from Mean
centre of the Mean
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 𝜽w
coil (X) in 𝜽e
meters

Observations
n number of turns of the coil =
i current passing through the coil =
a radius of the coil =
Be earth’s magnetic field = 0.38× 10−4 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
µ0 = permeability = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/m
Oersted experiment
Oersted discovered connection between electricity and magnetism. Current carrying conductor behaves
like a magnet and can attract iron filling and can induce permanent magnetism in small magnetic needle.
Ampere's Law
Ampere's Law specifically says that the magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to
the size of that electric current with a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free space.
Tangent Law
If a small bar magnet is suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform magnetic field, B and BH, such
that it come to rest making an angle Ө with direction of field BH, then B = BH tan Ө.

DESCRITPITON:
The apparatus consists of a circular frame made up of non-magnetic substance. An insulated copper wire
is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a
pair of terminals, the number of turns used can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long base B at the
middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side. The base has levelling screws. A rectangular non-
magnetic metal frame is supported on the uprights. The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil
and the frame passes through the circular coli. A magnetic compass used in deflection magnetometer is
supported on a movable platform.
This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil. The compass is so arranged that the
centre of the magnetic needle always lies on the axis of the coil. The apparatus is arranged so that the
plane of the coil is on the magnetic meridian. The frame with compass is kept at the centre of the coil and
the base is rotated so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The
compass is rotated so that the aluminium pointer reads 0º -0º. Now the rectangular frame is along the
east- west directions.
Theory:

When the coil is placed in the magnetic meridian, the direction of the magnetic field will be
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian i.e. perpendicular to the direction of the horizontal
component of the earth’s field Be.

When the deflection magnetometer is placed at any point on the axis of the coil such that the centre
of the magnetic needle lies exactly on the axis of the coil, then the needle is acted upon by two fields
 Calculation:

The magnetic induction B at any point P on the axis of the coil is given by

1
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
tan 𝜃

No. of turns in the coil N = ………………

Current through the coil I = ……………..
Radius of the coil R =…………………..
Distance of the point P from the centre of the coil d = ………………
Horizontal component of the earth’s field Be = 0.38 oersteds.
B and Be, which are at right angles to one another. Therefore, the needle deflects, according to
tangent law as. The value of the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is taken from
the standard tables. The intensity of the magnetic field at any point is calculated from equations and
verified.
Procedure:

With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about one meter is drawn
on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line perpendicular to this line is
also drawn. The Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian, as
shown in the figure. The external circuit is connected, keeping the ammeter, rheostat away from the
deflection magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because, the magnetic field
produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent magnetic field due to the
magnet inside the ammeter affect the magnetometer reading, if they are close to it.
The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum pointer read (0,
0) in the magnetometer. The key, K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the
magnetometer is about 60o. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection in the
magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current
should not differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 2 o or 3o, necessary adjustments
are to be made.
The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d = 0. The readings are noted in
Table 1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis of the coil in steps of 5 cm at a
time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections before and after reversal of current is
noted. The mean deflection be denoted as TanӨE. The magnetometer is further moved towards east
in steps of 5cm each time and the deflections before and after reversal of current are noted, until the
deflection falls to 30o.
The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards west from the center of the coil
in steps of 5cm, each time and deflections are noted before and after reversal of current. The mean
deflection is denoted as TanӨW. It will be found that for each distance (X) the values in the last two
columns are found to be equal verifying equation (1) and (2).
Graph:
A graph is drawn between X on x-axis and the corresponding TanӨ E and TanӨW along y-axis. The
shape of the curve is shown in the figure. The points A and B marked on the curve lie at distance equal
Precautions:

 The apparatus should be properly aligned with respect to Earth Magnetic field.

 Any stray magnetic fields should be kept away from the apparatus during the experiment.

 The power supply should be placed sufficiently isolated from the setup during experiment.

 Electrical connections should be properly inspected before switching on the equipment.

 Deflection readings should be taken without parallax error to half the radius of the coil (a/2) on either
side of the coil.

Applications
 To find the magnetic intensity at any point
 To determine the Earth’s magnetic field
 Electromagnetic Technology: Understanding variations in magnetic fields is crucial for the
development and optimization of electromagnetic technologies, including electric motors and
generators.
 Exploring Magnetic Field Fluctuations: Stewart and Gee’s approach is used to investigate the
fluctuation of magnetic fields with distance along the axis of a circular current.
 Totipotency in Plant Cells: While not directly related to Stewart and Gee, another fascinating
application lies in plant biology. The Steward experiment demonstrates that even mature, fully
differentiated plant cells can dedifferentiate, divide, reassemble, and produce new plants.
 PRE VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define magnetic field induction.
2. Write units of magnetic field induction.
3. What is the principle behind the experiment?
4. Define the tangent law

POST VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are two functions of the commutator?

2. How does the commutator convert AC to DC in a DC generator?
3. How can the principles learned from Stewart and Gee’s experiment be applied in real-world
scenarios?
2. What are the practical applications of understanding the magnetic field in a solenoid?
3. How do external magnetic fields affect the results of the experiment?
4. What is the role of the Biot-Savart law in understanding the magnetic field around a solenoid?

Inference:

Result:
The theoretical and calculated values are approximately same.
 Circuit diagram and model graph of LCR series and parallel

Fig 1. Circuit diagram of LCR series connection Fig 2. Model graph of series connection

Fig 3. Circuit diagram of LCR parallel connection Fig 4. Model graph of Parallel connection
 Expt.No. : RESONANCE IN LCR CIRCUIT
Date :

Aim:
To study resonance effect in series and parallel LCR circuit.

Apparatus:
A signal generator, inductor, capacitor, ammeter, resistors, AC milli voltmeter.

Formula:
The resonance frequency

Quality factor

Band width = (f2 – f1) (Hz)

Also Quality factor

Where
f1 and f2 are the frequencies at the half power points (Hz).

L = Self-inductance (mH)
C = Capacity of the capacitor (µF)
R = Resistance (Ω)

The Vectors:
We must take into account the different phase angles between voltage and current for
each of the three components in the circuit. The vector diagram to the right illustrates
this concept.
Since this is a series circuit, the same current passes through all the components and
therefore our reference is at a phase angle of 0°. This is shown in red in the diagram.
The voltage across the resistor, VR, is in phase with the current and is shown in green.
The blue vector shows VL at +90°, while the gold vector represents VC, at -90°. Since
they oppose each other diametrically, the total reactive voltage is V L - VC. It is this
difference vector that is combined with VR to find VT (shown in cyan in the diagram).
Table: The resonance condition of a series L-C-R Table: The resonance condition of a parallel L-C-
circuit R circuit

S.No Frequency Current S.No Frequency Current

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

6. 6.

7. 7.

8. 8.

9. 9.

10. 10.

Simulation Virtual Labs (virtual-labs.github.io)

We know that VT = 10 V RMS. Now we can see that VT is also the vector sum of (VL - VC) and VR. In
addition, because of the presence of R, the phase angle between V T and "i" will be arc tan((VL-VC)/VR),
and can vary from -90° to +90°.
Resonance and Effect of R:

At very low frequencies, capacitor C will be an open circuit, and

virtually no current will flow through the circuit. At very high
frequencies, inductor L will be an open circuit, and again no current
will flow. However, at intermediate frequencies, both XC and XL will
be moderate, and the difference between them will be small. At
resonance, that difference will be zero, and only R will limit the current
flow in the circuit.
The graph to the right shows normalized values of current through a
series RLC circuit at frequencies ranging from 0.01 times the resonant
frequency, to 100 times that frequency. Beyond that range, as you can
see from the graph, no significant current will flow at all. Within that range, current depends primarily
on the value of R.
(Note that these values are used specifically to obtain a normalized graph. Once we have the graph, we
can change the component values. Even though the resonant frequency and relative value of R changes,
the shape of the curve will always be the same, as long as the ratio L/C remains constant. We'll see
shortly what happens as that ratio changes.) In a fully normalized circuit, R = 1Ω. This will permit a
current of 1 A to flow at resonance, as indicated by the green curve on the graph. Similarly, if we set R
as 2Ω the current will be 0.5 A at resonance. The blue curve shows this. The remaining curves show
what happens if we reduce R. The yellow curve shows current when R = 0.5Ω, while the red curve is for
R = 0.1Ω. Note that for low values of R, the current at resonance peaks much higher, but falls off very
quickly as frequency changes. For higher values of R, the curve is much broader, and maximum current
remains much lower. This is the standard trade-off between bandwidth and maximum current, and the
value of R is critical for controlling this factor.
Calculation
1. Plot the graph of frequency (f) vs I (current) for series and parallel cases.

2. Read off the resonant frequency fr = 1/(2p√LC) by locating the maxima / minima in the graphs

3. The impedance of the circuit is given by

4. At resonance the impedance is maximum.

5. The impedance at resonance Z = L/CR

6. The anti-resonance frequency

If R-value is small, then

Basic methodology:

In the series LCR circuit, an inductor (L), capacitor (C) and resistance(R) are connected in series with a
variable frequency sinusoidal emf source and the voltage across the resistance is measured. As the
frequency is varied, the current in the circuit (and hence the voltage across R) becomes maximum at the
resonance frequency,
Description and theory:
Series L-C-R:
When the resistor R, inductor L and capacitor C are connected in series with a source of emf E, the
circuit is called as the series resonant or series tuned circuit (figure- 1). This is an acceptor circuit, that
means it allows maximum current to flow through it at a particular (resonant) frequency and at all other
frequencies it allows less current. In A.C. circuits the voltage and the current are usually out of phase.
Across the inductor, the current lags behind
the voltage by 900, whereas across the capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 900. But across the
resistor the voltage and current both are in phase. Under certain conditions, the voltage and current are
in phase, even though the circuit consists of L, C and R and the circuit behaves as a pure resistor. This
phenomenon is called resonance. This occurs at a single frequency known as resonant frequency. At this
frequency the capacitive reactance (Xc = 1/ωC) and the inductive reactance (X L = ωL) are equal and
opposite in direction. So they get cancelled each other and only resistance acts.
The impedance of the circuit is given by Z = R + j (ωL - 1/ωC )
At resonance the reactive term disappears ωL - 1/ωC = 0
The impedance is minimum i.e. Z=R
The current is maximum I = E/R So ωL = 1/ωC
ω0 = ω = 2π f(0)= 1 /√(LC )
At this frequency the current is maximum and this frequency f0 is called resonant frequency. The circuit
has selective properties. To compare selectivity or sharpness of resonance, a band of frequencies is
chosen at which the current falls to 1/√(2 ) times (half power points) of its maximum value. The
frequency difference (f2 – f1) between the half power points is called the bandwidth.
L-C-R parallel:
Parallel resonant circuit (figure-2) is one in which one branch consists of an inductor L with associated
resistor R and the other branch consists of a capacitor C. This is a rejector circuit that means it rejects
the current or allows minimum current to flow through it, at a particular (anti-resonant) frequency and it
allows more current at all other frequencies. So, the circuit is not selective. But it is highly selective
when energized from a high impedance generator.
Procedure:

For L-C-R series, the circuit is connected as shown in the figure-1. The source resistance and the
series resistance should be small. The output voltage of the signal generator is adjusted to be around 5V.
The frequency of the signal generator is changed in steps and the corresponding current values are noted
from the a.c. milli-ammeter. The readings are tabulated. The current values increase with the increase of
frequency, up to the resonant frequency, further increase of frequency causes the decrease of current.
The L,C and R values are noted to calculate the resonant frequency f 0 and Q factor, using the above
formulae.

Note: - The experiment may be repeated with a different value of ‘R’. Here the fo value is unchanged,
but Q- factor value is changed.
Graph: - A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency corresponding to maximum
current is noted and it is the resonant frequency f0. The frequencies f1 and f2 corresponding to half power
points is noted and from it the bandwidth, (f1 – f2) is noted. From the values of f0, f1 and f2, the quality
factor, Q is calculated.
For L-C-R parallel, the circuit is connected as shown in the figure-2. The frequency of the signal
generator is changed in steps and the corresponding current values are noted from the a.c. milli-
ammeter. The readings are tabulated. But here, the current values decrease with the increase of frequency
up to the anti- resonant frequency, further increase of frequency causes the increase of current. The anti-
resonant frequency fo is noted corresponding to the minimum current in the circuit.
Graph: - A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency corresponding to minimum
current is noted and it is the anti- resonant frequency f0.
 PRE VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is an inductor?
2. What is a capacitor?
3. What is meant by resonance in LCR circuit?
4. If frequency increases, how the current in LCR circuit?
5. What is the use of resistance in LCR circuit?
6. If the resistance increases in LCR circuit, how the sharpness changes?
7. What is meant by impedance in LCR circuit?
8. What is Q factor?
9. What is meant by impedance in LCR circuit?

POST VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How do you verify that the circuit is operating at resonance?

2. What are some practical applications of resonance in LCR circuits?

3. What are the key characteristics of an LCR circuit at resonance?

4. What is specific resistivity, and why is it important?

5. What is resonance rules?

6. Why is resonance important?

Inference

Applications
1. Radio receivers, television sets, and oscillator circuits use LCR circuits for tuning purposes.
2. Signal processing and communication systems, television and radio signals are an example of
an application of resonance effect that many of us are most familiar with, but there are many
other applications in which resonance circuits play an important role.
3. The series LCR is used for voltage magnification.
4. They are also used in induction heating.
5. Voltage Magnification when the total circuit impedance is less than either the capacitive or
inductive reactance at a resonant frequency, the supply voltage (developed across the circuit
resistance) will be less than either of the opposing reactive voltages V C or VL.
6. LCR series circuit is also known as tuned or acceptor circuit. They have many applications
particularly for oscillating circuits.
7. Series LCR circuit has applications in radio and communication engineering.
8. They can be used to select a certain narrow range of frequencies from the total spectrum of
ambient radio waves. For eg: AM/FM radio with analog tuners use a RLC circuit to tune a
radio frequency.

Results:
i). Resonance frequency for series LCR circuit = kHz
ii) Resonance frequency for parallel LCR circuit = kHz
iii). Calculate the value of resonance frequency = kHz
RC Circuit Time constant circuit diagram and model graph

Fig 1. Circuit diagram for time constant of series R-C

Fig 2. Model graph for time constant of series R-C

Expt. No :
TIME CONSTANT OF RC CIRCUIT
Date :

Aim:

To find the time constant of series R-C electric circuits

Apparatus:

D.C. Voltage source, resistors, Voltmeter, Decade capacitance box, Bread board.

Formula:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

𝜏 = Time constant

R = Resistance

C = Capacitance
THEORY:

RC Circuit:

Consider a series RC circuit as shown. The switch is in open state initially. There is no charge on
condenser and no voltage across it. At instant t=0, switch is closed. Immediately after closing a
switch, the capacitor acts as a short circuit, so current at the time of switching is high.
The voltage across capacitor is zero at t= 0+ as capacitor acts as a short circuit, and the current is
maximum given by,
I = V/R Amps

This current is maximum at t=0 which is charging current. As the capacitor starts charging, the
voltage across capacitor VC starts increasing and charging current starts decreasing. After some
time, when the capacitor charges to V volts, it achieves steady state. In steady state it acts as an
open circuit and current will be zero finally.

Charging current and voltage in capacitor are given as below. The term RC in equation of V C or
IC is called Time constant and denoted by , measured in seconds.
Observation Tabulation 1: Charge

S.No. Time (s) Voltage across the capacitor

VC (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Observation Tabulation 1: Discharge

S.No. Time (s) Voltage across the capacitor

VC (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
 when t = RC =  then, VC = 0.632V n

So, time constant of series RC circuit is defined as time required by the capacitor voltage to rise
from zero to 0.632 of its final steady state value during charging. Thus, time constant of RC circuit
can be defined as time seconds, during which voltage across. capacitor (stating from zero) would
reach its final steady state value if its rate of change was maintained constant at its initial value
throughout charging period.

The charging of a capacitor is not instant as capacitors have i-v characteristics which depend on
time and if a circuit contains both a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) it will form an RC charging
circuit with characteristics that change exponentially over time.

All Electrical or Electronic circuits or systems suffer from some form of “time-delay” between
its input and output terminals when either a signal or voltage, continuous, (DC) or alternating
(AC), is applied to it.

This delay is generally known as the circuits time delay or Time Constant which represents the
time response of the circuit when an input step voltage or signal is applied. The resultant time
constant of any electronic circuit or system will mainly depend upon the reactive components
either capacitive or inductive connected to it. Time constant has units of, Tau – τ

The electrical charge stored on the plates of the capacitor is given as: Q = CV. This charging
(storage) and discharging (release) of a capacitors energy is never instant but takes a certain
amount of time to occur with the time taken for the capacitor to charge or discharge to within a
certain percentage of its maximum supply value being known as its Time Constant (τ).
Procedure

Make the connections as per the circuit diagram. And then varying the frequency by using function
generator for different frequencies tabulate the value of voltage across the capacitor. Finally
calculate the time period and plot the graph for time period Vs voltage across the capacitor.
Resistance:
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the
passage of an electric current through that conductor.
 Calculation:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
Resistance value (R) =
Capacitance value (C) =

PRE VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate steady state and transient state.

2. What is meant by transient response?

3. Define the time constant of a RL Circuit.

4. Define the time constant of a RC Circuit.

5. What is meant by forced response?

POST VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is an RC circuit used for?

2. What is the time constant of the RC circuit practical?
3. What is the importance of RC time constant?
4. How do you determine the time constant experimentally from the charging or discharging curve?
2. How would you measure the time constant using the exponential decay method?
3. What is the purpose of using a DC power supply or battery in the experiment, and how should it be
connected?
4. How would you ensure that the capacitor is fully charged or discharged before taking a measurement?

Inference:
Applications
1. They are used to control the speed of a car's windshield wipers and the timing of traffic lights;
they are used in camera flashes, in heart pacemakers, and in many other electronic devices.
2. They are used in traffic lights
3. RC circuits are used in pacemaker
4. It can be used in audio equipment
5. RC circuits can be used in places were signal filtering is needed
6. It can be used as an integrator or differentiator

Result:
R= C=
From the graph
 The time constant in charging mode is:…………
 The time constant in discharging mode is:…………
The time constant from theory is:…………..
Thus the transient responses of RC circuit is found practically.
 Diagram and graph

Fig. 1. Hysteresis loss set up

Fig. 2. Circuit diagram - Hysteresis loss

Fig. 3. Model graph of Hysteresis loss

 Expt. No:
DETERMINATION OF HYSTERESIS LOSS
Date :

Aim
To draw the Hysteresis curve for the given sample of ferro magnetic material and hence to determine
the energy loss.
Apparatus
Solenoid, compensating coil, rheostat, magnetometer, commutator, battery and ferro magnetic material
in the form of a rod
Formula

( ). . . .
Hysteresis loss of the material of the sample = J/m2 cycle

Where
(i tan θ) = area of the hysteresis loop (m2)
x and y = the scale factors on x, y axes.
n = number of turns per metre in the solenoid
B = horizontal component of earth's magnetic induction. (40X10 2 Tesla)
L = the length of the specimen. (m)
R = radius of the specimen. (m)
D = The distance between the centre of the magnetometer and the centre of the solenoid.(m)
l = Semi length of the rod (m) (l=L/2)
Theory
Hysteresis:
Hysteresis is based on a Greek word that means lagging. So Magnetic Hysteresis is all about how a
material's magnetic properties lag behind the force that creates those properties. The hysteresis curve
tells us a lot about a material's response to a magnetic field, so if we know how to interpret it, we will
know and understand a lot about the material's response to magnetic input.
Magnetic Hysteresis
Consider a magnetic material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The graph intensity of
magnetization (M) vs. magnetizing field (H) gives a closed curve called M-H loop. Consider the
Table 1. To determine tan Ө:
S.No I (Ampere) Ө1 (degree) Ө2 (degree) Mean Ө (degree) tan Ө
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
portion AB of the curve given below. The intensity of magnetization M does not become zero when
the magnetizing field H is reduced to zero. Thus the intensity of magnetization M at every stage lags
behind the applied field H. This property is called magnetic hysteresis. The M-H loop is called
hysteresis loop. The shape and area of the loop are different for different materials.
Hysteresis Loop
An initially unmagnetized material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The values of intensity
of magnetization M and the magnetizing field H are calculated at every stage and a closed loop is
obtained on plotting a graph between M and H as shown in the figure. The point ‘O’ represents the
initial unmagnetized condition of the material. As the applied field is increased, the magnetization
increases to the saturation point ‘A’ along ‘OA’. As the applied field is reduced, the loop follows
the path ‘AB’. ‘OB’ represents the intensity of magnetization remaining in the material when the
applied field is reduced to zero. This is called the residual magnetism or remanence. The property
of retaining some magnetism on removing the magnetic field is called retentivity. OC represents
the magnetizing field to be applied in the opposite direction to remove residual magnetism. This is
called coercive field and the property is called coercivity. When the field is further increased in the
reverse direction the material reaches negative saturation point ‘D’. When the field is increased in
positive direction, the curve follows path ‘DEF’.

Figure, Magnetic hysteresis loop showing coercive force OC, residual magnetism OB, saturation
point A
Hysteresis loss: The hysteresis loss can be calculated using the area enclosed by the B-H curve.
Calculations:

( ). . . .
Hysteresis loss of the material of the sample = J/m2 cycle

X = 0.5
Y = 0.2
Z = 29.5
d = 40 x 102
R2 = 2.92 x 10-3
L = 50 x 10-2
Principle
When a ferro magnetic material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization, there is an
expenditure of energy. this energy generally appears in the form of heat in the specimen. The
energy loss due to the lagging of magnetic induction (B) with respect to the magnetizing.
Procedure
The solenoid is kept along the east-west direction perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. The
connections are made as shown in the (Fig.1.) A magnetometer is kept between the solenoid
and the compensating coil. The circuit is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so that a maximum
current 3.0 amp., flows the circuit. The given iron sample I demagnetized by dropping it a few
times. It is
then inserted into the solenoid. (Even with zero current there will be a deflection in the
magnetometer which is due to residual magnetization.) First the rod is taken through a
complete cycle of magnetization the cycle operation changing the current from +3 amp to -
3amp. And back again form +amp, to -amp, is repeated four or five times before the readings
are finally taken in order to ensure the saturation states is reached in going through the cycle
the rheostat must be worked all in one way without bushing the sliding contact backward and
forward. Now the sliding contact of the rheostat is set for a current of three amp. In the circuit.
The current is then decreased in steps of 0.5amp. Till 0.0amp.is reached nothing the
magnetometer readings in each case. Now the commutator is reversed and the current is
increased by the same steps up to -3.0amp. the current is then decreased till 0.0amp.is reached
noting the magnetometer readings in each case. Again, the commutator is reversed is and the
current is increased successively to 3. 0amp.noting the magnetometer reading.
Observations of deflections (θ) at different currents (I) for the whole cycle are noted in the
Table 1
Applications

1. Power Transformers: Minimizing hysteresis losses improves power distribution

system efficiency.
2. Electric Motors: Low hysteresis losses enhance motor performance.
3. Inductors and Magnetic Devices: Efficient design of electronic circuits.
4. Control Systems: Stabilizing feedback loops to prevent noise.
5. Aerodynamics: Enhancing stability during flight.
6. Memory Retention: Used in magnetic tapes and hard drives.
7. Respiratory Physiology: Studying lung behavior.
8. Labor Economics: Analyzing unemployment rates and economic cycles.

Inference:
 PRE VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Explain ‘'magnetic Hysteresis''
2. Explain the terms 'Coercivity' and 'retentivity'.
3. Explain the practical significance of magnetic Hysteresis,
4. What are soft and hard magnetic materials?
5. Mention few applications of soft and hard magnetic materials.

POST VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is hysteresis, and why does it occur in magnetic materials?

2. Which factor hysteresis loss depends?
3. What does hysteresis depend on?.
4. What reduces hysteresis?
2. Why is it important to use a sinusoidal input signal for this experiment?
3. How does the shape of the hysteresis loop change with different materials?
4. If the hysteresis loop obtained is not symmetrical, what could be the reason?

Result
Hysteresis loss of the material of the given sample= -------------------- J/m-cycle
 Fig 1. Transverse mode of vibration Fig 2. Longitudinal mode of vibration

Longitudinal mode:

Mass of the pan (M2) = 5 gms

Tension Length Frequency

S .No Load T=(M+ No. of loops (p) of the x n = p/l√(T/m)
(M) gm M2)g loops (l) Hz
1.
2.
3.

Transverse mode

Length Frequency
S .No Load Tension No. of loops (p) of the x n = p/2l√(T/m)
(M) gm T=(M+
loops (l) Hz
M2)g
1.
2.
3.

Simulation https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=201&sim=882&cnt=4
 Exp. No: MELDES SETUP
Date

Aim:
To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork in
longitudinal and transverse arrangement using Melde’s setup.

Apparatus:
Melde’s arrangement, rheostat, plug keys, connecting wires, meter scale, thread,weight box,
power supply.

Formula
Frequency of tuning fork
Longitudinal

Transverse

Where
m - Mass per unit length (or) linear density.
T – Tension = (M+m) × g.
l – Length of a single loop

Theory/Principle:
Speed of waves in a stretched string: A string means a wire or a fiber which has a uniform
diameter and is perfectly flexible. The speed of a wave in a flexible stretched string depends
upon the tension in the string and mass per unit length of the string.

(1)
Where the tension T in the string equal to Mg.
M - Mass suspended and g is acceleration due to gravity.
μ - linear density or mass per unit length of the string.

(2)
Where m is the mass of the string and L is the total length of the string.
Observations:
Mass of the thread (w) = gm, Length of the thread (y) = _ cm,

Mass of the pan (p) = gm, Linear density (m) = gm/cm

Calculations:
Melde's String
Speed of waves in a stretched string: A string means a wire or a fiber which hasa uniform
diameter and is perfectly flexible. The speed of a wave in a flexible stretched string depends upon
the tension in the string and mass per unit length of the string.

Vibrations of a stretched string: When the wire is clamped to a rigid support, the transverse
progressive waves travel towards each end of the wire. By the superposition of incident and
reflected waves, transverse stationary waves are set up in the wire. Since ends of the wire are
clamped, there is node N at each end and anti-node A in the middle as shown in Figure.

The points of the medium which have no displacements called nodes and there are some points
which vibrate with maximum amplitude called antinodes.

Principle An elastically tensioned thread is attached to a mechanical vibrator and weighted from
the other end is allowed to vibrate. Standing waves form and are analyzed.
Or
A string undergoing vibration illustrates many features common to all vibrating systems, the
vibrating the length or the tension in the string is adjusted to obtain anumber of clear loops on
the string. The loops are formed due to interference / standing waves between the waves starting
and reflected back from the pulley.
 PRE VIVA-QUESTIONS
1. What is frequency?
2. What is the frequency of the vibrations?
3. What are standing waves?

4. Explain the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.

5. What is Resonance?
6. Define nodes and anti-nodes.
7. Define resonance condition.

8. Explain the importance of Melde’s experiment.

9. Give some important application of Melde’s experiment.

POST VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How would you confirm that the string is vibrating in its fundamental mode?
2. How would you adjust the experiment to measure the speed of the wave on the string?
3. How does the amplitude of vibration affect the formation of standing waves?
4. What is the significance of resonance in Melde’s experiment?
5. Why is an electromagnet used in Melde’s experiment?
6. How to use a sonometer?
Inference

Result:
Frequency of the tuning fork in longitudinal mode Hz.

Frequency of the tuning fork in Transverse mode Hz

 X-RAY POWDER PHOTOGRAPH

Fig 1. XRD powder photograph sample peak lines

Fig 2. Systematic diagram of Travelling microscope

 Expt. No: CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL X-RAY
Date : POWDER PHOTOGRAPH METHOD

Aim:
To determine the lattice constant of BCC crystal using powder photograph.

Apparatus required:

X-ray powder photograph, travelling microscope, reading lens.

Formula:

Where,
K- constant, a- lattice constant
- wavelength of X-ray light used
h, k, l - Miller indices
- diffraction angle (degree)

Theory:
Diffraction of Light and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) are fascinating phenomena that reveal intricate
details about the structure of materials.
Diffraction of Light:
When light encounters an obstacle or passes through a narrow slit, it bends and spreads out. This
phenomenon is called diffraction.

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD):

XRD is a powerful technique for determining a sample’s composition and crystalline structure.

How it works:
 A beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal.
 The electrons of the atoms in the crystal oscillate under the influence of the incoming
To determine K for _ film

Radius of camera R =

Wavelength of monochromatic X-ray = X 10 -10 m

S. Microcsope Reading (x 10-2 m) = Sin =

No
S=S1- Sin2
MSR VC S1 MSR VC S2
S2

Mean K =
X-rays and become secondary sources of electromagnetic radiation.
 Coherently scattered X-rays (with the same frequency as the incoming X-
rays) are important for XRD.
 These waves undergo constructive or destructive interference, revealing
information about the crystal’s structure.
 The orderly periodic arrangements of atoms in crystalline materials allow
them to diffract light.

Principle:

The crystal powder consists of large number of tiny single crystal oriented in different
directions. When X-ray undergo Bragg reflection from certain selected crystal planes, they
give rise to constructive interference fringes which forms arcs of circle on the X-ray film.

Bragg’s Law:

Constructive interference occurs when X-rays reflect off planes in a crystalline structure,
satisfying Bragg’s law.

Procedure:

The print of X-ray diffraction film is used for the measurement of lattice constant. The distance between
any two corresponding arcs of the circle on the spread-out film is termed as ‘S’. If R is the radius of the
camera, then glancing angle where S is measured using microscope.
Calculation:
The microscope is focused on the left extreme arc of the BCC film and the cross wire is made tangential
to it. The horizontal scale of microscope is read. The microscope was moved so that the crosswire is
tangential to the successive arcs and the readings are noted on the horizontal scale. The process is
repeated on the right side. The difference between the readings of the corresponding arcs gives the
value of S. The readings are tabulated.

For BCC crystal, the allowed reflections are from planes for which (h 2+l2+k2) ratio is 2:4:6:8:10

For FCC crystal, (h2+l2+k2) ratio is 3:4:8:11:12:16 For SCC (h2+l2+k2) ratio is1:2:3:4:5. So, using

(h2+l2+k2) values, the value of K is calculated. Using the value of K

in the formula the lattice constant a can be determined.

Applications:

XRD is used to determine atomic structures in larger crystals, macromolecules, and inorganic
compounds.
Pre viva questions
1. What is powder method crystal structure?
2. What is the powder method of X-ray?
3. What is the powder method of photography?
4. What is the principle and working of powder X-ray diffraction?
5. Who gave the powder method?

POST VIVA QUESTIONS.

1. How are diffraction patterns recorded in the powder method?
2. How does the presence of impurities or defects in the crystal affect the XRD pattern?
3. How would you identify an unknown material using XRD?
4. How can you distinguish between different crystal systems (e.g., cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal)
using XRD?
Inference

Result:
Lattice constant for BCC Crystal = __________X10-10 m
Fig 1. Circuit Diagram
 Expt. No: PLANCK’S CONSTANT
Date :

Aim:

To measure the value of Planck’ s constant ‘h’ using LED and compare it with the standard value.

Apparatus required:

Color LED lights, Digital ammeter, Digital voltmeter, Connecting wires, Voltage regulator

Formula:
Energy; E = h 𝛎
Also E = eV

𝑬 𝑬𝝀
Planck’s constant; h = =
𝛎 𝒄
Where 𝜆 = wavelength of light used

c = Velocity of light = 3×108 m/sec

e = Charge of electron = 1.60217663 × 10-19 coulombs

V = Voltage applied

Planck’s Constant:

Planck’s constant, denoted by (h), is a fundamental physical constant in quantum mechanics. It

relates the energy of a photon to its frequency through the equation:

[ E = h 𝛎]

where (E) is the energy, 𝛎 is the frequency, and (h) is Planck’s constant. The value of Planck’s
constant is approximately (6.62607015x 10-34 joule-seconds (J·s).

Max Planck introduced this constant in 1900 to explain black-body radiation, and it has since
become a cornerstone of quantum mechanics. It essentially quantizes energy levels, meaning
energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts called quanta.
Table: 1: Observation

Wavelength Knee voltage 𝑬𝝀

S.No E = eV h= × 10-34 m2 kg / s
𝝀 ×10-10 m V
𝑪

Mean K =
Theory:

An LED is a semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential barrier is developed
across the p-n junction of the LED (Fig 1). When we connect the LED to an external voltage in
the forward biased condition, holes from the p type and electrons from the n type region start to
enter the junction to enable the current flow and as a result the height of potential barrier across
the p-n junction is reduced. At a particular voltage in this forward biased condition, the height of
the potential barrier becomes so low that the current flow increases rapidly and the LED starts
glowing as the excited electrons (the electrons which are crossing the junction) comes to the
ground state (valence band). This particular voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold
voltage. Once the knee voltage is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does not
change.

Procedure:

To determine Planck’s constant using LEDs of different colors, start connection according to the
provided circuit diagram. Connect the positive terminal of the DC power supply to both the
positive terminal of the DC voltmeter and the positive terminal of an LED. Then, connect the
negative terminal of the DC power supply to both the negative terminal of the DC voltmeter and
the negative terminal of the LED. Set the DC voltmeter to a range of 20 V. After connecting the
mains cord, switch on the power supply. Gradually increase the DC voltage using the variable
resistance potentiometer and observe the LED. When the LED just begins to emit light, record the
applied voltage from the DC voltmeter. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the LED. Repeat
this process for LEDs of different colors, noting the voltage at which each LED starts to emit light.
This data will be used to calculate Planck’s constant.
Calculation:
Simulations

Applications:

Photon Energy Calculation:

It is used to calculate the energy of photons, which is crucial in fields like spectroscopy
and photonics.

Semiconductor Physics:

Understanding the energy levels in semiconductors and the operation of devices like
LEDs and lasers.
Pre /Post viva questions
 Why Minimum potential is required to glow the LED?

 In the photoelectric effect, a suitable frequency of photon falls on an electron in an atom

and ejects the electron. In LED when electron-hole recombination takes place a photon
emits. How do you see these two phenomena?

 Why do you put two different energies eV and hv equal, what is the condition that they
satisfy in the LED?

 Why does Blue color LED stopping potential greater than the Red color LED?

 Can we achieve the population inversion process in LED too? if yes what is the condition
for that? if not then why?
Inference

RESULT:
 The measured value of Planck’s constant; h =

 The known value of Planck’s constant; h=

 % error in the experiment:

S.No Course Code / List of Experiments
Out of Syllabus (As per AICTE Model Curriculum)
List of Experiments Simulation Links
1. To find the wavelength of sodium light using -
prism
2. To determine the wavelength of Diode laser -
using transmission grating
3. To determine the wave length of sodium light by Newton's Rings-Wavelength of light (Simulator) : Laser
Newton’s rings method Optics Virtual Lab : Physical Sciences : Amrita Vishwa
Vidyapeetham Virtual Lab
4. To determine the wave length of sodium light -
using a diffraction grating
5. Find the refractive index of given liquid using Newton's Rings-Refractive index of liquid (Simulator) :
Newton’s rings method. Laser Optics Virtual Lab : Physical Sciences : Amrita
Vishwa Vidyapeetham Virtual Lab
6. Experiment on moment of inertia measurement Rigidity Modulus of The Suspension Wire of A Torsion
using Torsional Pendulum Pendulum (Simulator) : Advanced Mechanics Virtual Lab :
Physical Sciences : Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham Virtual
Lab
7. Diffraction and interference experiments (from Diffraction Grating (Simulator) : Optics Virtual Lab :
ordinary light or laser pointers) Physical Sciences : Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham Virtual
Lab
Demonstration-1

HOW A CIRCUIT BREAKER WORKS?

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT BREAKER

It is necessary to know how the circuit breaker works for every engineer. Circuit breaker
consists of two electrodes one is fixed and another moving. The circuit will be closed if the two
contacts are in contact and it will be open when these are two are apart. This is based on the
operator requirement whether the circuit should be closed or opened at the initial case. Suppose if
the breaker is closed initially to make the circuit, if any fault occurs in the circuit or if the operator
wanted to open it then the logic signal energizes the trip relay which separates the two contacts by
moving the moving coil distant to the fixed coil.

This looks easy operation but the real hurdle is here only i.e. when the two contacts are
separating there will be large transient potential difference between the contact ends which enables
huge electron jumping from high potential to low potential. But the transient distance between the
two contacts at that instant acts as dielectric for the electrons to pass from one electrode to another
electrode.

If the potential difference is higher than the dielectric strength then the electrons tries to
pass to another electrode which ionizes the dielectric medium which leads to high spark between
the electrodes. This spark is called “arc” between the electrodes. Even though the arc persists for
microseconds, it is sufficient to blast the circuit breaker insulating casing and components in it due
to the high heat of sparking. So, to avoid this damage to the circuit breaker the severity of the arc
has to reduce by increasing the dielectric strength between the two electrodes when they are
separating and the developed has to quench immediately before it damages the breaker.
 CIRCUIT BREAKER

Circuit breaker main purpose:

 Switch load currents

 Make onto a fault
 Break normal and fault currents
 Carry fault current without blowing itself open (or up!) i.e. no distortion due to magnetic
forces under fault conditions.
 The important characteristics from a protection point of view are: The speed with which
the main current is opened after a tripping impulse is Received.

Advantages of Circuit breaker over fuse

 The Circuit breaker operates at high voltages compared to fuse.

 Circuit breaker can be operated remotely by energizing the close or trip coil which cannot
be done in case of fuse.
 Circuit breaker functioning (Tripping or closing) can be tested easily.
 No need to replace the circuit breaker after fault.

Here are 5 tips that you should bear in mind when conducting a check-up on your circuit breaker:
1. Identify Your Tripped Circuit Breaker

Your circuit breaker emits a humming sound when it is overloaded but has not switched off yet.

Inside your electric access panel, the tripped breaker lever can usually be found between the “on”
and “off” position

2. Test Your Circuit Breaker

Check the lever by moving it from ‘on’ to ‘off’ a couple of times to check how loose it is. If your
breaker has no ‘give’ and moves easily then it is faulty and you need to have it replaced as soon
as possible.

3. Switch Off All of Your Appliances Again

Switch off all your appliances that are connected to your circuit breaker but make sure to do it all
at once to prevent a surge of electrical power when you reset it. If your circuit breaker keeps on
tripping then hire a professional to come and have a look at it.

4. Check Your Wiring

If your home has faulty wiring, then your circuit breaker will be tripping continuously and
you may find yourself receiving electrical shocks when powering certain appliances of yours. This
requires a trained professional so don’t try this on your own. Simply identify the problem and hire
a professional to take care of it.

5. Have Your Circuit Breaker Tested for the Necessary Voltage

Touch one probe of the 120-240-volt tester to the tip of the “hot” wire, while touching the
other tip to a bare copper grounding wire within the main electrical box. Use a neutral grounding
terminal which is secured with ground wires and neutral wires for the probe. You will need to
replace your circuit breaker if you find the right amount of voltage present.
Demonstration-2

HOW TO CHECK EARTHING AT HOME

Earthing is a process similar to grounding that transfers discharged electricity from an

appliance directly to the ground so you don’t get shocked if there’s a faulty wire. While the
standard electrical code requires earthing on your system, older homes may not have earthing. If
you want to check if you have proper earthing, try plugging the wires from a lightbulb base into
the ports of an outlet to see if it lights up. If you want to test more accurately, use a multimeter to
take your readings instead.

1. Testing with a Lightbulb

Screw a 100-watt bulb into a base socket. Look for a standard lightbulb that has a 100-watt
output on it. Then check your local hardware store for a standalone base socket to screw your
lightbulb into. Choose one that already has 2 wires attached to it so you don’t have to use your
own. Position the end of the lightbulb inside the socket and rotate it clockwise to secure it to the
base. Make sure the socket base is made to use with 100-watt lightbulbs. If the power rating is too
strong or weak, then the test may not work.

Strip 1Ú2 inch (1.3 cm) off the end of each wire on the base. Find the matching gauge for
the wire on the base using a pair of wire strippers. Clamp one of the wires in the slot so about 1Ú2
inch (1.3 cm) sticks out from the other side. Slowly pull the wire toward you to cut through the
insulation and strip it so the wiring is exposed. Repeat the process for the second wire on the other
side of the base. Tip: If you don’t have a wire stripper, pinch the end of the wire between the blades
of a pair of scissors. Pull the wire in the opposite direction of the section you want to strip to
remove the insulation. Be careful not to squeeze too hard or else you’ll cut through the wires.

Push the wires on the base into the live and neutral ports of an outlet. Take either wire
connected to the base and push the exposed end into the live port on your outlet, which is usually
the larger and longer slot. Then take the second wire on the base and put it into the neutral slot,
which is the smaller port next to the live one. If your outlet is properly working, the lightbulb will
immediately turn on. The light won’t turn on if the outlet you’re testing isn’t connected to power.
Warning: Never hold a wire that’s exposed or has cracked insulation while it’s plugged in since
you could shock or electrocute yourself.

Plug the wires into the live and earthing ports to see if the lightbulb turns on. Pull both
wires out from their ports to begin. Take one of the wires and place it in the earthing port, which
is the third hole at the top or bottom of your outlet. Place the second wire in the live port again to
see if the lightbulb illuminates. If the lightbulb has the same intensity as your first test, then the
outlet is properly earthed. If the light doesn’t come on at all, then the outlet doesn’t have any
earthing. If the light is dimmer than your first test, then your outlet has earthing on it, but it may
be faulty. Contact an electrician to inspect your electrical system to find the source of the problem.

2. Checking Earthing with a Multimeter

Set a multimeter to measure AC voltage. Multimeters can test various electrical components for
voltage, current, and resistance. If you’re using an analog multimeter, turn the dial on the front to
the letter “V” that has wavy lines next to it for AC power. If you have a digital multimeter, cycle
through the settings using the buttons until you reach AC voltage. Choose the highest cutoff value
for the voltage on the meter so you can get an accurate reading.

Some multimeters may not have cutoff values listed on them. In that case, just switch the
meter to the AC voltage setting and continue. Plug the red and black leads into the matching ports
on the multimeter. Your multimeter will have red and black leads that connect to the ports on the
bottom of the machine. Attach the end of the red lead to the port labeled with “V”, “Ω,” or “+”
and plug the black lead into the port labeled “COM” or “-” so you can check your outlet. Avoid
swapping the leads since you could cause the multimeter to short circuit. Warning: Don’t use any
leads that have cracks, damage, or exposed wires since you could get electrocuted while you’re
testing your outlet.

Take a reading while the leads are in the live and neutral ports of an outlet. Hold the leads
by the insulation wrapped around them so you don’t get shocked while you’re working. Push the
pointed end of the red lead into the neutral port on the outlet, which is usually the smaller slot.
Then put the end of the black lead into the live port, which is the larger and longer slot on your
outlet. Check the voltage reading on the multimeter and write it down.
Start by testing your multimeter on an outlet that you know works so you can see what a normal
reading looks like. The ports where you attach the leads may differ depending on the type of plug,
you’re using. For example, on a type D or M plug, the live port is on the bottom right while the
neutral port is on the bottom left. Check the voltage when the leads are inserted to the live and
earthing ports. Take the red lead out from the neutral port and carefully place it inside the earthing
port, which is either a circular or U-shaped hole on the top or bottom of the outlet. Check the
reading on the multimeter to see how many volts travel between them. Write down the
measurement so you can compare your readings.

 If your home has earthing, then the reading should be the same as or within 5 volts of the first
reading you took.
 If the reading between the live and earthing ports is close to 0, then you don’t have any earthing
on that outlet.
 If your outlet doesn’t have an earthing port, then it isn’t connected and does not have earthing.

Test the voltage between the neutral and earthing ports on the outlet. Place the red lead in
the neutral slot and the black lead into the earthing port to check the reading. The volts listed on
the multimeter will be a small amount compared to the other readings you’ve taken. Write the third
reading down so you know how much electricity is going between the ports. You don’t need to
test the neutral and earthing ports if you’ve already determined you don’t have earthing on the
outlet. Calculate the total leakage on your outlet to see if it's less than 2 V. The leakage is the
number of volts that transfer from your earthing port to the outlet. Subtract the first reading you
took (live to neutral) from the second (live to earthing). After solving that, add the number of volts
from your third reading (neutral to earthing). If the number is greater than 2 V, then your earthing
may be faulty. Otherwise, the outlet is safe to use.

 For example, if your first reading was 230 V, the second reading was 231 V, and the third
was 0.5 V, then your formula would be (231-230) + 0.5, which simplifies to 1.5 V.
 If you have faulty earthing, contact a licensed electrician to look at your electrical system
to find the problem.
Life Skills Experiments

Demonstration-3

HOW DOES THE FUEL PUMP KNOW WHEN TO STOP ON ITS

OWN

Fueling up at the gas station is a routine task we perform regularly, but have you ever wondered
how the gas pump knows when to stop dispensing fuel, preventing overfilling? The answer lies in
a clever device known as the automatic shut-off valve. In this blog, we'll delve into the mechanism
behind this ingenious feature and explore how it ensures a safe and efficient fueling process.

The Automatic Shut-Off Valve

The automatic shut-off valve is a critical component built into modern gas pumps. Its
primary function is to detect when the fuel tank is full and automatically stop the flow of gasoline.
This valve relies on two main mechanisms to determine when to shut off:

Pressure

As fuel flows into the gas tank, it creates pressure within the tank. The automatic shut-off
valve is designed with a small tube that extends into the gas tank, allowing fuel to flow through it.
As the fuel level rises and reaches the top of the tube, the pressure builds up and triggers the shut-
off valve to close, stopping the flow of fuel.

The Venturi Effect

The shut-off valve also utilizes the Venturi effect, which is a phenomenon where fluid (in
this case, gasoline) flowing through a constricted section creates a decrease in pressure. The gas
pump nozzle contains a narrow passage that accelerates the fuel flow. As the fuel level in the tank
rises and approaches the nozzle opening, the decreased pressure in the Venturi section triggers the
shut-off valve to close, indicating that the tank is full.
Preventing Overfilling

The automatic shut-off valve is calibrated to shut off the fuel flow when the tank reaches its safe
capacity, preventing overfilling. Overfilling can lead to fuel spills, which are not only wasteful but
also pose huge safety hazards.

Why isn't it Electric?

When you think about it, it's nothing too complex. Just a few basic physics laws and
components - but why didn't they automate or electrify it. Well, it's exactly because of simplicity, because
simplicity means reliability. The last thing you want is to change fuel pumps every day due to their use.