5 DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS

5.1 OPTICAL FIBERS

Aim: To measure the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber cable.

Apparatus: Optical fiber cable (OFC), diode laser, travelling microscope bed carrying

fixed screen and a movable chuck.

Theory: Numerical aperture is one of the important parameters of an optical fiber cable.
Numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the
range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light. In other words, the numerical
aperture also indicates the amount of light linking the optical fiber cable and the detector
(screen) or the source. Smaller the numerical aperture better will be the optical fiber cable.

Fig.1: Acceptance cone.

Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the core and the cladding of the optical fiber
respectively, placed in air (n0=1). Now, Snell’s law can be used to calculate the maximum angle
within which light will be accepted in to and conducted through a fiber.

Hence,

sin 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

where the term sin θ0 is called numerical aperture.

The light propagation through the optical fiber takes place based on the principle of total
internal reflection at the core-cladding interface. Hence the semi angle θ0 of an acceptance cone

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for a fiber is decided by the critical angle θc = sin-1(n2/n1). For a ray with incident angle less
than θ0, it undergoes total internal reflection at core cladding interface and is called the guided
ray.

In a short length of straight fiber, ideally a ray launched at angle θ0, at the input end
should come out at the same angle θ0 from output end. Therefore the far field at the end will
also appear as a cone of semi angle θ0 originating from the fiber end. It is then simpler to make
measurements on this far field to determine the NA of the fiber.

Fig. 2: Laser light emerging from the cable and forming a divergent cone of rays.

Numerical aperture of a cable is also defined as sine of the half angle of the cone
generated due to the divergence of rays. The light emerges out in the form of a cone and
produces a circular spot on the screen at a distance L (Fig. 2). If D is the diameter of the circular
spot then

𝐷⁄2 𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃0 = =
𝐿 2𝐿

By measuring D and L, tan θ0 can be determined; hence the numerical aperture can be
calculated from the equation,

NA = sin θ0 = sin [tan-1(D/2L)]

Procedure

➢ The optical cable is coupled to the laser and the laser light propagating through other
end of the cable is verified.

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 ➢ The other end of the cable is coupled to the chuck fixed on the transverse motion bench.
➢ The chuck carrying the OFC is brought close to the graduated screen and the laser spot
is seen on the graduated screen.
➢ By adjusting the fine motion screw of the microscopic bench, the spot diameter D is
adjusted to the preferred value.
➢ The distance L between the fixed screen and chuck carrying OFC is noted on the
graduated scale fixed along the X-axis.
➢ NA is calculated using the equation sin θ0 = sin [tan-1(D/2L)]
➢ The trial is repeated for different values of D, and the average value of NA is calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

Distance
Spot
between fiber Numerical
Diameter Acceptance angle
Trial and screen Aperture
No. D −𝟏
𝑫
𝜽𝟎 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( )
L 𝟐𝑳 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟎
(mm)
(mm)

Mean 0 = Mean NA =

Result:

Acceptance angle of the given optical fiber = ____________________

Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber = ____________________

Reference Book: Introduction to fiber optics – A. K. Ghatak and Thyagarajan,

Cambridge University Press (1999)

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5.2 EXPERIMENTS USING LASER

Aim: To determine the wavelength of the given laser beam using a diffraction grating.

Apparatus: Diffraction grating, laser, measuring scale, screen etc.

Principle: An arrangement of large number of equidistant parallel slits constitutes a grating. It

is prepared by drawing fine lines extremely close together on the surface of an optically flat
glass plate using a diamond point. The lines act like opacities and region between two lines act
like transparencies. When a light beam of wavelength λ is incidenton a transmission grating
(with N number of slits per unit length) normally, the diffracted beams of mth order are
observed at angles θ with respect to the undeviated beam (zeroth order beam), on either side.
The relation between these parameters is, sin θ = m N λ.

Fig : Schematic representation of diffraction of light through grating

Procedure: Switch on the laser unit and adjust the laser beam to be (approximately) normal to
the surfaces of the grating as well as the screen. Identify the spots on the screen, most intense
one due to undeviated beam (zeroth order) and two others two due to first order diffracted
beams on either side of the zeroth order. Measure the distance 2y between the spots due to first
order diffracted beams, and the normal distance (x) of the screen from the grating. Repeat the
measurements for the second (and third) order diffracted beams. Calculate 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and
y
mean value of sin θ = r
, where θ is the diffraction angle. Calculate the wavelength of the

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 sin θ
laser beam using λ = , where m is the order of the diffracted beam and N is the number
mN

of slits per unit length in the grating.

Observations and calculations:

N is the number of slits per unit length in the given grating.

Measurement of mth order diffraction angle :

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
N Order x 2y y 𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒚 𝝀 =
𝒎𝑵
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒓
(m−1) m (m) (m) (m) (m)
(m)

6 × 105 1

3 × 105 2

1 × 105 3

Mean λ = ……………………………..nm

Result:

The wavelength of the given laser beam is =………………….………………… nm.

Review Questions:

1. What is LASER ?
2. Define the phenomenon of diffraction of light?
3. What is grating ? Mention grating equation.
4. What happens to the diffraction pattern when the distance between slits within the
grating is increased?
5. What happens to the diffraction pattern when the number of slits within the grating
(with same grating spacing) is reduced?

Reference Book: Course of Experiments with He-Ne Laser 2001, New Age International,
New Delhi

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5.3 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Aim: To determine the Planck’s constant and the work function of the material of the photo
cathode in the given photo-emissive cell.

Apparatus: Photo-emissive cell, a white light source, optical filters, a micro-ammeter, a

voltmeter, connecting wires.

Principle: When light of a particular frequency falls on a photo-cathode, photo electrons are
ejected. The kinetic energy (Kmax) of the most energetic photo electron depends on the
frequency (f) of the incident light. These electrons can be retarded by the application of a
retarding potential and the electrons can be stopped completely by increasing the retarding
potential to a value called stopping potential (Vo). Then no current (Ip) flows in the external
circuit.

Fig: Circuit Diagram and variation of stopping potential with frequency.

In the experiment the stopping potentials are measured for lights of different frequencies. White
light source and optical filters are used to get the light of a particular frequency. Einstein’s
photo electric equation is Kmax = hf – hfo, where h is the Plank’s constant and fo, is the threshold
frequency. In the experiment Kmax = eVo where e is the electronic charge. Hence the equation
takes the form eVo = hf – hfo. A plot of Vo versus f gives a straight line graph with a slope equal
to h/e and f-intercept fo. The work function of the photo-cathode is given by ϕ = hfo.

Procedure: Build up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Place an optical filter in the
path of the light from a white light source. Note down the wavelength of the light from the
filter and calculate the frequency. Illuminate the photo cathode using this light. Apply a
retarding potential and increase its value so as to make the photo-electric current zero. Note

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down this stopping potential value. Similarly find the stopping potentials for lights of different
frequencies using other filters. Draw a straight line graph of stopping potential versus
frequency of the light. Find the slope and calculate the Planck’s constant. Also, find the
threshold frequency and calculate the work function of the photo cathode.

Observations and calculations:

To find the stopping potential for lights of different frequencies:

Optical filter Frequency

Stopping potential
Wavelength
3  10 8
f = V0
Colour  
(Volt)
(m) (Hz)

From the graph, slope = ……………………

 Planck’s constant, h = slope × e

= …………………………….… × 1.6 × 10–19

=………………………………………. Js

From the graph, threshold frequency fo = …………..………………….. Hz

(6.62  10 −34 Js) ( Hz )

 Work function, ϕ = h fo =
(1.6  10 −19 J/eV )

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 = ……………………………….. eV

Result:

Planck’s constant, h = ……………………………………………..Js

Work function of the photo-cathode in the photo-emissive cell, ϕ = …….……………….. eV

Review Questions:

1. What is photoelectric effect?

2. What is work function of the metal?
3. What is the significance of threshold frequency?
4. Whether the kinetic energy of the emitted photo electron depends upon the intensity of
the incident electromagnetic radiation?

Reference Book: Physics, Vol 2, 6 ed, by Serway & Jewett, 2004, Thomson Brooks / Cole

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5.4 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE USING SINGLE SLIT

Aim: Verification of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle using single slit diffraction pattern.

Apparatus: Single-slit apparatus with an adjustable slit width, Monochromatic light source
(laser), Screen to observe the diffraction pattern, Measuring scale or micrometer, Optical
bench, Detector (optional, for precise measurements).

Principle:

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that the uncertainty in position (x) and momentum
(p) of a particle cannot both be arbitrarily small.

Mathematically,

ℎ
∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋

Figure 1 : Experimental Setup

Fig 2: a) Ray diagram od single slit diffraction b) vector diagram of photon momentum.

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In single-slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit (a) introduces an uncertainty in
position (Δx). The spread of the diffraction pattern on the screen corresponds to an uncertainty
in momentum (Δp) of the photons.

From Fig. 2a, the first minimum in the diffraction pattern occurs at:

𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 (𝑚 = ±1)

Here a = Δx and let m = 1

So, ∆𝑥 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆

𝜆
OR, ∆𝑥 = sin 𝜃

From Fig 2b we have,

∆𝑝 = 𝑝 sin 𝜃

From the above two equations we have,

𝜆
∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 = . 𝑝 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃
𝜆 ℎ ℎ
= . sin 𝜃 since 𝑝 =
sin 𝜃 𝜆 𝜆

Thus,

𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 = 𝒉 >
𝟒𝝅

Procedure

Mount the single-slit apparatus on an optical bench and position the monochromatic light
source so it passes through the slit and projects onto the screen. Set the slit width (a) to a
measurable value using the micrometer. Observe and measure the diffraction pattern on the
screen. Mark the positions of the central maximum and first minima. Measure the distance (D)
between the slit and the screen. Measure the width of the central bright fringe (Δy) on the
screen. Compute the angular spread using θ=Δy/D. Repeat the experiment for different slit
widths (a) and record observations.

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Slit Width Distance Fringe Angular Uncertainty in Product
𝒂 = ∆𝒙 between slit Width Spread Momentum ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑
and screen (∆𝒚) ∆𝒚 𝒉 ∆𝒚
𝜽= ∆𝒑 = 𝒑. 𝜽 =
(D) 𝑫 𝝀 𝑫

Mean ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 = …………

Result:

The product ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 is equal to …………………. which is of the order of h and is in consistent
with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. The results confirm the fundamental limitation on the
precision of simultaneous measurements of position and momentum.

Review questions:

1. What does Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle state?

2. How does a single-slit diffraction experiment demonstrate Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle?
3. What role does the slit width (a) play in the uncertainty in position (Δx)?
4. How is the uncertainty in momentum (Δp) related to the angular spread of the
diffraction pattern?
5. Why is a monochromatic light source used in this experiment

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