Analysis and Proof

of the Four-Colour
Theorem for Planar
Graphs
Presented by:
Group 3
G V Roshan - MBA/BA03/017
Navaneeth Venkateswaran - MBA/BA03/027
Navin - MBA/BA03/028
T Sivaprakash - MBA/BA03/040
Dinesh J - MBA/BA03/058
Four Colour Theorm
The Four Color Theorem states that any planar graph
(a graph that can be drawn on a plane without any
edges crossing) can be coloured with at most four
colours such that no two adjacent vertices share the
same color
 Euler’s Rule
Mathematician Leonhard Euler discovered a rule that
applies to any connected planar graph:
V−E+F=2
where:
V = number of vertices (dots)
E = number of edges (lines)
F = number of faces (regions, including the outside
area)
This formula helps us understand the structure of
planar graphs.
 V = 8; E = 14; F = 8

Applying Euler’s Rule,

8-14+8 = 2
Hence Proved

This connects to Euler’s formula by showing that a graph that satisfies

Euler’s rule can be reduced to smaller regions (the faces), which can then
be assigned colours without conflicts.
In summary, Euler’s formula provides the foundational relationship
for planar graphs, and while the Four Colour Theorem builds upon
this concept, it is more concerned with the colouring aspects of
planar graphs.
Average Degree of a Planar Graph?

What is the Degree of a Vertex?

The degree of a vertex is the number of edges
connected to it.
For example, if a country shares borders with 3
other countries, it has degree 3.

Finding the Average Degree Each edge connects two vertices, so the
total sum of degrees is 2E.
The average degree of a vertex is:
Average Degree = [2 x E]/V
 Average degree of a planar graph

01 02 03 04
Each face in a planar The total number of Using Euler’s formula, The average degree is
graph is bounded by at edge incidences is we can prove that for less than 6, so some
least 3 edges. This is 2E (each edge any planar graph: vertices must have
true for simple planar counts twice), E <= 3V - 6 degree 5 or less.
graphs because no face The total number of This means that the 👉 Why does this
can have fewer than 3 edge incidences is at graph cannot have too matter?
edges. least 3F (since each many edges compared If we can always find
face has at least 3 to the number of a vertex with degree
edges). vertices. This leads to ≤ 5, we can use
the average degree induction to prove
being smaller than in the theorem.
other types of graphs.
Building on the Euler's rule
Alfred Kempe (1879) says any planar
graph will have at least one of these
following configurations

unavoidable set
Minimal Counter Example
If there excited a smallest graph that required at least five colours,it can be reduced using
Kempe’s Algorithm to prove that 4 colours are enough to colour any map.
Kempe’s Algorithm
Find the Unavoidable set in the minimal counter example and remove one node from it.

Recolour the graph

Reintroduce the Unavoidable set , if it works , you have solved it or one of the following
scenario occurs

Workout the scenarios using Kempe’s chain rule and solve it

Removing a node from the Unavoidable set will make the graph 4 colourable

If the removed configuration has less than 5 nodes it can be easily coloured with 4 colours.

If the removed configuration has 5 nodes then the following scenarios occurs

Frees up the fourth colour

If there is a chain it prevents colour flipping

It also prevents the other two sides from forming chain

so the other two colours can be flipped
Removing a node from the Unavoidable set will make the graph 4 colourable

If the removed configuration has 6 nodes then the following scenarios occurs

These two cycles prevent the cycles

between yellows Since the yellows can form chains , they are flipped

Hence the four colour theorem is proved by Kempe

Or is it proved????
Appel and Haken
Combinatorial approach - analyse all possible configurations

Discharging method - assign an initial charge to each vertex and distribute it to other
vertices

Try to prove the dicharging theorem

If discharge theorem satisfies then the configuration is reducible else it is not

Through iterative charge redistributions and careful analysis, they identified 1834
configurations that frequently appeared

The procedure ensures that no configuration is overlooked, making the proof exhaustive
and complete
 Applications
Social Network Analysis Political Conflict and Sociology of Urban
Diplomacy Planning
If we represent individuals as
nodes and relationships as edges, The Four Color Theorem can The Four Color Theorem can be
then colouring the network using help in mapping out territories applied in city planning to
at most 4 colours can be useful or designing policies where no create distinct zones with
for grouping people with minimal two adjacent regions share the minimal overlap.
same political control, reducing
conflicts.
conflicts. 👉 Example: Ensuring that
👉 Example: In a school or 👉 Example: In electoral district
industrial zones don’t directly
border residential areas while
workplace, different groups of
friends or colleagues can be planning, political parties can balancing commercial zones in
assigned colours such that no two ensure that neighboring regions between.
closely interacting groups have distinct identities while
(connected nodes) share the same balancing representation.
colour, helping in conflict-free event
planning or seating arrangements.
Thank you!