Chapter 2

Review of
Signals & Systems
• Outline:
• Size of a signal: Energy , Power, Root Mean Squared
• Signal Classifications
• Signal Operations
• Important Functions: Dirac Delta Function & Sifting Property,
Step Function

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Size of a signal
• How do we measure signal size?
• Amplitude, area,…… energy and power Comments:
• Signal Energy: • To find the power, the signal
has to be periodic or has
complex signals!! statistical regularity
• Power & energy depends on
• Signal Power: average power or time average of energy the load. It can be
interpreted as energy or
power dissipated in a
→ normalized load 1-ohm
resister.
• is the mean squared of the signal • Units of energy (Joule) and
power (Watt) does not fit
• Observe for long enough and then average it (divide by )
(dimensionally wrong). If
• Root mean squared (rms) = used then a 1 ohm resister is
assumed

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Examples: Power & Energy

Determine the suitable measure and evaluate it

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Additional Examples
Power add up for sinusoidal of different frequencies but
not true for other signals in general .
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐶 cos 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝐶 cos 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑃 = + , 𝜔 ≠𝜔
Example 2.2a,
For a sinusoidal signal with amplitude 𝐶, 𝑃 = , rms=
• For a DC value =𝐶 , 𝑃 = 𝐶 and rms =𝐶
→

•
→

•
→ →

• Second term is zero because we are integrating over two periods

• rms=

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Classification of Signals
• Analog vs. Digital signals
• Continuous-time vs. discrete-time signals
• Periodic vs. aperiodic signals
• periodic signal 𝑓(𝑡) with period 𝑇0 satisfies:
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇0) for all integer values of 𝑛
• Deterministic vs. probabilistic (Random) signals
• Deterministic signals are those that can be computed (mathematically or
graphically) beforehand at any instant of time.
• Random signals are signals that are random and cannot be determined
beforehand.
• Energy vs. Power signals: as described next.

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Power vs. Energy Signals
• Energy Signals
• An energy signal is a signal with finite energy and zero average power
0 ≤ 𝐸 < ∞, 𝑃 = 0.
• Power Signals
• A power signal is a signal with infinite energy but finite average power
0 < 𝑃 < ∞, 𝐸→∞ .
• A signal cannot be both power & energy signal (but it can be neither, e.g. ramp 𝑟(𝑡))

Notes:
• Periodic signals are usually power signals.
• Not all non–periodic signals are energy signals… e.g. ramp.
• Any signal 𝑔(𝑡) that has limited amplitude (| 𝑔(𝑡) | < ∞) and is time-limited (𝑔(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 | 𝑡 | > 𝑡0 for
some 𝑡0 > 0) is an energy signal.
• Every real life signal generated in the lab is an energy signal, but we approximate power by averaging over long
enough time 𝑡 → ∞

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 Example
• Determine if the following signal is Energy signal, Power signal, or neither, and
evaluate and (See more examples in the book)

1 • So, the energy of that signal

𝐸 = |𝑎(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 = |3 sin( 2𝜋𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 𝑃 = |𝑎(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 = |3 sin( 2𝜋𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
1 is infinite and its average
power is finite (9/2)  it is
1 1 a power signal as expected.
=9 1 − cos( 4𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 =9 1 − cos( 4𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2 2
• Notice that the average
1 1 power of this signal is as
=9 𝑑𝑡 − 9 cos( 4𝜋𝑡)𝑑𝑡 =9 𝑑𝑡 − 9 cos( 4𝜋𝑡)𝑑𝑡 expected (square of the
2 2
amplitude divided by 2)
=∞ J 9 9
= − sin( 4𝜋𝑡)
2 4𝜋
9
= W
2
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Useful Signal Operations
• Time shifting , 𝑓(𝑡) ← 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇)
• 𝑇 > 0, shift right
• 𝑇 < 0, shift left
• Time Scaling & Inversion, 𝑓(𝑡) ← 𝑓(𝑎𝑡)
• if |𝑎| > 1 compression.
• if |𝑎| < 1 expansion.
• 𝑎 < 0 time reversal (time-inversion).
• We could have inversion with expansion or inversion with
compression at the same time.
• Magnitude Shifting 𝑓 𝑡 ← 𝑐 + 𝑓(𝑡)
• 𝑐 > 0 , shift up.
• 𝑐 < 0, shift down
• Magnitude Scaling and Magnitude Inversion, 𝑓 𝑡 ← 𝑏𝑓(𝑡)
• |𝑏| < 1, attenuation
• |𝑏| > 1, amplification
• 𝑏 < 0, also amplitude inversion
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Example: Combined Operations
• Given the signal shown, sketch the
signal:
` 𝑓(– 2𝑡 − 6)
` +2

•
𝑓 𝑡 → 𝑓(𝑡 ) `
• −5
` `
−2
` −2.5 −1
• `
+7
4 − 3𝑓(– 2𝑡 − 6)
+4

𝑡’ −2 −1 4
𝑡 −2 −2.5 −5
−2

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Exercise: Reversed Operations 𝑓 𝑡 → 𝑓(𝑡 )

• Given , sketch

𝑡 −3
𝑡=
4
2
𝑡 0 2
𝑡 −3/4 −1/4

-3/4 -1/4

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Unit Impulse Function (Dirac delta function)
• The unit impulse function  satisfies the following conditions:
• (𝑡) = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≠ 0, (therefore it is non-zero only at 𝑡 = 0).

• ∫ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1, area always 1

• Properties of the Unit Impulse Function:

• Multiplication of a function by the unit impulse response:
𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡−𝑡 =𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡−𝑡
• Sampling property (sifting property)

𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡 ) 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡 )

e.g. ∫ 𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓 0 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(0) ∫ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(0)

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 Unit Step Function
• Obtaining the unit step function from the unit impulse function

• Causal Signals, do not start before t = 0

 do not change when multiplied by . e.g.
• What is a causal system?

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