CIEM 5760 Engineering Geology

and Rock Mechanics

Prof. Gang WANG

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology

Course Outlines
Overview of geology and rock
Minerals and major rock types
Weathering, surface processes and soil formation;
Structural geology and stereonet analysis
Mohr circle analysis of stress
Strength of intact rock, rock mass and joint
Rock mass classification
Rock slope analysis
Underground excavation and tunneling support
Rock foundation
Marine reclamation
 References
Course Notes
Richard E. Goodman, Engineering Geology: Rock in Engineering
Construction, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.
Thomas H. Jordan and John Grotzinger, The Essential Earth,
W.H.Freeman, 2008
Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions (GEOGUIDE 3), Geotechnical
Engineering Office, CEDD, HKSAR
https://www.cedd.gov.hk/filemanager/eng/content_110/eg3_20170829.pdf

Engineering Geological Practice in Hong Kong, GEO Publication No.

1/2017. https://www.cedd.gov.hk/filemanager/eng/content_149/ep1_2007.pdf

References on rock mechanics

[1] R.E.Goodman, Introduction to Rock Mechanics (2nd Ed). John Wiley & Sons, 1989.
[2] E. Hoek, Practical Rock Engineering, 2007.
https://www.rocscience.com/assets/resources/learning/hoek/Practical-Rock-Engineering-Full-
Text.pdf
[3] B. H. G. Brady and E. T. Brown. Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining, third edition,
Springer. Online version available through HKUST library
[4] E. Hoek and J.W. Bray. Rock Slope Engineering, 3rd Edition, Spon Press, 1981
[5] D. C. Wyllie, C. Mah, E. Hoek. Rock Slope Engineering: Civil and Mining, 4th Ed. Taylor &
Francis, 2004. Online version available through HKUST library
[6] J.P. Harrison and J.A. Hudson, Engineering Rock Mechanics, An introduction to The
Principle, Elsevier Science, 2000. Online version available through HKUST library
[7] E. Hoek, P.K. Kaiser, W.F. Bawden, Support of Underground Excavations in Hard Rock.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37408005_Support_of_Underground_Excavation_in_
Hard_Rock
CIEM 5760 Engineering Geology
and Rock Mechanics

Lecture 1: Overview of Geology

and Rocks

1. The Role of Engineering Geology

and Rock Mechanics
Geology is the field of knowledge concerning the present and past
morphology and structure of the earth, its environments, and the fossil
record of its inhabitants. The goal is to decipher the physical, chemical,
and biological evolution of our planet from its origin to the present time

Engineering Geology serves the art and science of engineering

through description of the structure and attributes of the rocks
connected with engineering works.

Engineering geologist presents geological data and interpretations for

use by the civil engineer.

Interpreting the geologic data

Provide conceptual model representing the morphology and
engineering-geologic classification of each rock unit.
 Solid Fluid
Mechanics Mechanics
The position of soil mechanics, rock
mechanics and engineering geology
Soil mechanics
and ground engineering
Rock
This course mechanics

Idealisation of Modeling:
Geomaterial Conceptual, physical
Mechanics of behavior numerical
Discontinua
Ground
Constitutive laws Ground Engineering
Laboratory and field testing Model Structure
Material properties Ground
Derived, characteristic and Engineering Cost effective
design value and safe
Geologically
Composition: and technically
material, sustainable
structure, state
conditions, Ground behavior:
ground water Geological Model Predicted/actual
Geotechnical uncertainty

Engineering
Geology

This course

Boundary conditions: Project Partners

Geological processes General Publics, Clients, Planners,
Geological hazards Funders, Insurers, Engineers (e.g. Civil,
Structural, Mining, Petroleum)

HKIE Geotechnical Discipline

MINIMUM CORE SUBJECT AREAS: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

(a) Engineering Geology and Rock Mechanics

Study of concept and knowledge in engineering geology and rock mechanics,
such as minerals and rocks, structural geology, earthquakes, surface
processes, rock mass classification, rock discontinuity, stereonets, rock
stresses, and rock strength. (this course)

(b) Soil Mechanics

Study of engineering principles pertinent to the mechanical behavior of
soils, such as soil classification, state of stress, shear strength, earth
pressure, bearing capacity, stiffness, seepage theories, consolidation, and
laboratory testing techniques

(c) Application of Geotechnical theory in engineering practice

Study of applied aspects of soil and rock mechanics and geotechnical
principles, such as design of retaining walls and excavation support systems,
slope stability analysis, foundation engineering, site investigation, ground
treatment, natural terrain landslide risk assessment and mitigation,
geotechnical modeling, and environmental geotechnology
What is rock mechanics

mechanical behavior of rock; it is that branch of mechanics

concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical

--- Committee on Rock Mechanics of the Geological Society of America

strength of soils while rock

mechanics is the study of the weaknesses --- A. M. Muir
Wood (1979)

Real rock is not CHILE.

Continuous Discontinuous
Homogeneous Inhomogeneous
Isotropic Anisotropic
Linearly- Non-
Elastic Elastic

It is DIANE
 Dams

Hoover Dam

2003 Rock failure of Bukit Lanjan (Malaysian)

The 7 June 2008 landslide
involved a 250 m3 failure on
a rock slope No. 10NE-B/C56
below Tsing Yi Road.

Stereonet
Analysis
Example of small rock-bolt

Loading plate of rock-bolt

Loading plate of rock-bolt

Three gorges dam site

Rock Slope Excavation

Quarry

https://www.rocscience.com/assets/resources/learni
ng/hoek/Practical-Rock-Engineering-Full-Text.pdf
 Underground Engineering

The new Antwerp Central Station on the

Paris-Amsterdam high speed rail link
Tokyo Subway

Tunnel
Tunnels

MTR Express Rail Link Contract No. 821 Shek Yam to Mei Lai Road Tunnels (@dragages)
 Explosives niches for WIL including access
adit excavation totals approximately 325 m in
length and the main excavation for each niche
is approximately 4.2 m high, 5.5 m wide and
8.6 m long

Relocation of Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works to

Caverns https://ststwincaverns.hk/

Opportunities and Benefits of Rock

Cavern Development to House
NIMBY Facilities in Hong Kong
 As of Sept. 2021
As of Oct. 2022 https://ststwincaverns.hk/

Relocate Diamond Hill Fresh Water and Salt Water

Service Reservoirs and Pumping Stions

2027
https://www.hk01.com/article/677036?utm_source=01ar
ticlecopy&utm_medium=referral

2500 7000
Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao bridge

Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong Express Rail Link

reinforce Hong Kong's position as
the transport hub in southern
China and integrate Hong Kong
into the country's rapidly growing
express rail network

The construction work for the

Express Rail Link has been
commenced in April 2010, and
completed in Sept. 23, 2018
(after several years of delay).
Hong Kong section is 26 km, most of which
through underground tunnels.

Actual completion 2018/09/23

Cost 84.4 billion HKD
Driving through complexity

2014 3
33

https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/hong-kong-mtr-high-speed-rail-line-25-
02-2010/
The bored tunnel section under the south-western part of Kowloon is the most complex and
challenging of the tunnelling contracts because of the various obstacles which must be
negotiated. Tunnels will run through reclaimed land areas containing buried jetties, piers, sea
walls and drainage culverts which are still in use. In the Lai Chi Kok district, TBMs must
squeeze beneath MTR subway tunnels with just 2.8m clearance before passing either side of
pairs of 2.5m diameter bored piles supporting the elevated Lai Chi Kok road interchange. The
tunnels will also thread 2m above a water transfer tunnel and then close to the piled
foundations of high rise estates as they approach the cut and cover section running into the
terminus.
Risks presented by the soft ground at the north end of the tunnel by the border with the
mainland of China are different, but also present big challenges. Here earth pressure balance
machines or slurry shield TBMs will have to drive through faulted ground under protected
wetlands where access shafts are banned.
The TBMs must be fully repairable underground

Part of this section also runs through an area of marble where the potential for infilled voids

prevent the TBM alignment being affected resulting in cracking of the segment lining at the

voids and so flag up the need for advance grouting. 34

 Yucca Mountain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucca_Mou
ntain_nuclear_waste_repository

Proposed in 1987
Approved in 2002
US$9 billion invested
Strongly opposed
In May 2021, no longer a
government option

Yucca Mountain Repository is the

proposed United States
Department of Energy deep
geological repository storage
facility for spent nuclear reactor
fuel and other radioactive waste.
A tunnel boring machine that was used at Yucca Mountain nuclear waste
repository.

2. Early History of Engineering Geology

1875-1876 The first formal lectures on `Geology for Engineering Students'
were given by Theodore B. Comstock at Cornell.

1880 First Publication on Engineering Geology by W.H. Penning.

Early 1900s The first American engineering geologists (Charles Berkey)

1914 The first American engineering geology text book by Ries and Watson.

1925 Karl Terzaghi published the first text in Soil Mechanics (in German).

1906 San Francisco Earthquake (influence of geologic conditions to

foundations and design)

1928 Failure of the St. Francis dam in California and the loss of 426 lives
(importance of the lithology in dam foundations)

1959 Failure of Malpasset Dam in France and loss of 421 lives (research rock
behavior and slope stability problems)

1963 Disaster of Vaiont Dam in Italy and death of 1900 to 2500 people
(detailed studies on slope stability and rock structure)
 should be half geologist.

If you do not succeed in grasping the

concepts of engineering geology you
... better keep away from earthwork
engineering

-- Karl Terzaghi (1957)

Golden Gate Bridge Controversy

South North

Pacific Ocean

San Francisco Bay

 serpentine mélange

Serpentinite block at Marshall

Beach (SW side of the Golden Gate
Bridge). The road with folded chert can
be seen on the far (north) side of the
bridge.
http://www.sanandreasfault.org/Geology%20of%20the%2
0Golden%20Gate%20Headlands%20Field%20Guide.pdf
41

Andrew C. Lawson,
Serpentine
Diabase Bonita Ingleside Martin Sausalito 1932
& Basalt Sandstone Chert Sandstone Chert

Golden Gate Bridge

CONTROVERSY
SOUTH PIER FOUNDAITION
concerning
BAILEY WILLIS A. C. LAWSON distribution of serpentine and faults

The south pier of Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, was the focus of a geological controversy
in 1930s to redesign its foundation. A contention that faults occurred in a poor-quality
serpentine \ - - - \ foundation rock led geologist Bailey Willis (Prof. Emeritus at
Stanford University) to challenge findings of the consulting geologists A.C. Lawsen (UC
Berkeley) and A.E. Sedgwich (USC-Los Angeles). The differences of interpretation are shown
on subsurface sections of the south pier (from Kiersch, 1991, p. 35).
42
Geologic map of south pier area and subsurface section
showing location of `faults' believed by Bailey Willis to occur
and endanger the integrity of south pier foundation. After an When asked how long the
extensive hearing in which each argument by Willis `was Golden Gate Bridge would
carefully scrutinized and found erroneous as to fact or last, Chief Engineer Joseph
inference,' the Building Committee concluded: a `sandstone Strauss replied,
mass' did not occur at depth nor did a fault plane beneath
the pier site, and furthermore, the serpentinized rock mass "Forever."
was a competent body, when confined, to carry the static 43
load imposed by the bridge.

Three Gorges Dam

Dams

Xiao Lang Di Dam

Hoover Dam
Failure ST. FRANCIS DAM (1928)
Uplift force is not
considered in design!

St. Francis Dam was designed and built by the City of Los Angeles in 1924-26, to

The dam was designed as a curved concrete gravity dam 185 feet high because
there was no clayey material on site to construct an earthen
embankment structure.

the dam became unstable. A crack could then developed in the upstream heel.

Failure of St. Francis Dam, USA

Arching effect is not

considered in design!

o The dam a curved concrete gravity structure 62 m high, located in a canyon

35 miles northwest of Los Angles.
o St Francis Dam was arched upstream on a 500-ft radius, but was not
designed for arch action. It was treated as a gravity dam!
o The arch loads on St. Francis become significant when the reservoir rose
to within 11 feet of spillway crest, exceeding 10,000 psf.

Check out the full story by Prof. J. David Rogers

http://web.mst.edu/~rogersda/st_francis_dam/St-Francis-Dam-for-ASCE-Press.pdf
 Schematic block diagram of the left
abutment area, showing the approximate
areal limits of the 1928 east abutment
landslide. Bailey Willis (1928) was the only
person who recognized that the east
abutment slide was only a small portion of a
much larger prehistoric landslide developed
within the schist. (From David Rogers)

Left abutment landslide

Foundation landslide is
not considered in design!

Around midnight March

12/13, 1928, a massive
landslide occurred along the

landslide involved 1.52

million tons of schist moving

thousand tons of concrete.

When foliation is inclined toward hill-slopes, it needs to be careful that

foundations on hill-slopes are not threatened by slides on the foliation.

conglomerate

Foliation orientation

Approximate rock
Mica schist surface after failure

Geologic cross section of the St. Francis Dam.

The east abutment was underlain by muscovite schist with numerous
foliation shears containing soft micaceous gouge. The schistosity dips at
about 35o, parallel to the canyon wall, suggesting that the steep canyon
wall resulted from sliding on the schistosity.
Two years after (1928) construction when the reservoir was almost full for
the fist time, the dam failed, some 425 persons were drowned. The failure
was partly due to the sliding of the unstable schist beneath the east side of
the dam cracked and titled the dam.
 After Failure of St. Francis Dam
Engineering geologic input on dams became commonplace in the
1930s (it had been all but absent in the 1920s).
Review of all federal dams
Increased dam safety legislation in California
Professional engineering registration
State-mandated arbitration hearings for victims of natural disasters
Impact on passage of the Boulder Canyon Project Act and the design
of Hoover Dam

Francis Dam Failure on Geology, Civil

Failure of Vajont Dam, Italy

"the failure of
engineers and
geologists"
9 October 1963 at 10:39pm
3. The Earth system all parts of Earth and the interactions of the parts

climate system
plate tectonics system
geodynamo system

Lithosphere (from the Greek lithos

Asthenosphere (from the Greek asthenes
 Earth is an open system Its activity is powered by internal
and external heat engines

The Sun drives Solar energy is internal

external responsible engine is powered in its interior.
engine. for our climate
and weather.

Sun

Heat radiating from Earth

Meteors move mass from
balances solar input and
the cosmos to Earth.
heat from interior.

The Layered Earth

Crust Mantle Liquid iron

outer core

Solid iron
inner core

solid despite its high

temperature because
of the extremely high

center.
 Boundaries: crust, upper
mantle, transition zone,
lower mantle, outer core,
inner core

Abrupt changes in

major interior layers are

caused by changes in the
chemical composition
of those layers.

Chemical Composition

About 90 percent of Earth is: iron,

oxygen, silicon, and magnesium.

Gravity has drawn the iron to the core

Crust and mantle mostly oxygen and

silicon (silicate enriched)

Core- mostly iron

The crust: continents are made of lighter rock and thus

Less dense continental Continental crust

crust floats on denser is less dense than
mantle. oceanic crust.

Moho boundary separates a crust composed of low-density silicates, which are

rich in aluminum and potassium, from higher-density mantle silicates, which
contain more magnesium and iron.

0 (km)
10 Oceanic crust Continental crust
20
(3.0 g/cm3) (2.8 g/cm3)
30 Mantle
40
Moho
(3.4 g/cm3)
50
discontinuity
Horizontal distance not to scale

Crustal rocks are less denser than mantle rocks, allowing the crust to float on the
mantle. Continental crust is thicker and has a lower density than oceanic crust, which
causes it to ride higher, explaining the elevation difference between continents and
the deep sea floor.

The climate system: complex interaction among all the Earth

system components that determine climate on a global scale and how
climate changes with time.
 The plate tectonics system: how does the heat energy
inside the Earth move and thus affect the crustal plates?

...where it cools,
Convection moves laterally,
causes form and diverge.
hot water to
Hot matter from the
Where plates
converge, a
cooled plate is

Plate Plate

and rises and rises again.

again.

The geodynamo system: rapid convection of liquid iron in

outer core
magnetic field

When rocks form, they become slightly magnetized by the magnetic field.
The magnetic field can completely reverse direction (magnetic reversal).
4. Plate Tectonics
(1) Evolution of the theory of plate tectonics
(2)
(3) Rates and history of plate motion
(4) Mantle convection: the engine of plate tectonics

About Plate Tectonics (1960s)

It is the movement of plates and the forces acting between them.
It explains the distribution of volcanoes, earthquakes, folded
mountain chains, rock assemblages, and seafloor structures.
The forces that drive plate motions arise from the mantle
convection system.

(1) Evolution of the theory

Continental drift
(1915, Alfred Wegener)

The geological similarities of

rock assemblages and ages
across oceans

The jigsaw-puzzle fit of the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean formed the basis of
theory of continental drift. In his book The Origin of Continents and
Oceans, Wegener cited as additional evidence the similarity of geologic features on
opposite sides of the Atlantic. The matchup of ancient crystalline rocks in adjacent
regions of South America and Africa and of North America and Europe is shown here.
[Geographic fit from data of E. C. Bullard; geologic data from P. M. Hurley.]
 (1) Evolution of the theory

Continental drift

The geological similarities of

rock assemblages and ages
across oceans

Fossil evidence suggesting

that continents were joined at
one time
Glacier deposits distribution
Fossils of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus, 300 million years old, are found in South
America and Africa and nowhere else in the world. If Mesosaurus could swim across
the South Atlantic Ocean, it should have been able to cross other oceans and should
have spread more widely. The observation suggests that South America and Africa

Scientific American (November 1972): 57 66.]

(1) Evolution of the theory

Seafloor Spreading
What is the driving force
of continental drift?
1915: Wegener: tidal forces;
1928: Arthur Holmes: convection
current;
1947: Doc Ewing: explored sea floor of
Atlantic Ocean;
1960s: Harry Hess, Robert Dietz:
seafloor spreading hypothesis;
1965: Tuzo Silson: first described
tectonics and different boundaries;
1970: Theory Accepted. Textbook
revised.

The North Atlantic seafloor, showing the cracklike rift valley running down the center of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the locations of associated earthquakes (black dots).
 (1) Evolution of the theory

Seafloor
spreading

geological
activity in
mid-ocean
ridges

The Pacific Ring of Fire, with its active volcanoes (large red circles) and frequent
earthquakes (small black dots), marks plate boundaries where oceanic lithosphere
is being recycled.

(2)

mosaic of rigid plates

three types of boundaries
divergent, convergent, transform
(2)
Divergent boundaries: plates move apart and new
lithosphere is created (plate area increases)
Convergent boundaries: plates come together and one plate
is recycled into the mantle (plate area decreases)
Transform boundaries: plates slide horizontally past each
other (plate area does not change)
Oblique boundaries: divergent/convergent+ transform
Earthquakes and patterns of faulting

A. Divergent Boundaries
(a) Oceanic plate separation
 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent
plate boundary, rises above sea
level in Iceland. This cracklike rift
valley, filled with newly formed
volcanic rocks, indicates that plates
are being pulled apart. [Gudmundur
E. Sigvaldason, Nordic
Volcanological Institute.]

A. Divergent Boundaries
(a) Continental plate separation

Active volcanoes, earthquakes, and rifting over a wider zone than is found at oceanic
spreading center.
B. Convergent Boundaries
(a) Ocean-ocean convergence

increases. Water trapped in the rocks in squeezed out and rises into the
asthenosphere above the slab. This fluid causes the mantle to melt, producing a
chain of volcanoes, called an island arc, behind the trench. Earthquake as deep as
690 km beneath some island arcs.

B. Convergent Boundaries
(b) Ocean-continent convergence

Examples: Andes mountain (south America)

Cascadia subduction zone (Seattle): Mt. St. Helens
Subduction Zone Earthquakes
Subduction Zone Earthquakes
2011 Japan Earthquake
(Tohoku earthquake)
Plate
Eurasia

plate
Pacific

Philippine
83mm/

Date: Friday 11 March 2011

Magnitude 9.0 (Mw) undersea megathrust
earthquake

Earthquake Since 2011

83mm/
 Earthquake Since 1990

83mm/

2011 Japan Tohoku

Earthquake led to tsunami
that caused nuclear accident
and widespread destruction,
killing over 18,000 people

Earthquake damage in Kobe,

Japan, 1995 (killed 6400)
Subduction Zone Earthquakes

2010 Chile earthquake

Date 03:34:08, 27 February 2010
Magnitude 8.8

B. Convergent Boundaries
(c) Continent-continent convergence
 2008 5 12 8
14 28 01, May 12, 2008

8.0 (Ms)
19km
69,197 : 18,377
374,176
: 1

Uplift of Tibet plateau v.s. Sichuan basin

Tibet Plateau
Sichuan
Basin

India

Euroasian plate

Indian
Plate 2D Experiment
by Tapponnier (1975)
 Continuous deformation of the Tibetan plateau
from GPS data (CEA, 2004)
Convergence
across Longmen
Shan is relatively
slow

Old, strong
lithosphere
underneath
Sichuan basin

Zhang et al. (2004) Geology

C. Transform-Fault Boundaries
(a) Mid-ocean ridge transform fault

lateral (transform) fault and earthquakes

 C. Transform-Fault Boundaries
(b) Continental transform fault

lateral (transform) fault and earthquakes

San Andreas Fault, California

As plates
move past
each other...

San
Francisco
are offset
(130m)

Los Angeles

Pacific North
Plate America
Plate
A view northwest along the San Andreas fault in the Carrizo Plain of central California.
The San Andreas is a transform fault, forming a portion of the sliding boundary
between the Pacific Plate (left) and the North American Plate (right). Notice how plate
movement on the fault has offset the streams flowing across it. [John Shelton.]
 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
Date: April 18, 1906
Magnitude 7.9 (Mw)
3000 death, 80% of San Francisco was destroyed

Seismic Hazard for San Francisco Bay Area

3-D image of the crust beneath the

San Francisco Bay area, Earthquakes
are shown as yellow dots
 Earthquake damage in
Los Angeles, 1994

Magnetic mapping can measure the rate of seafloor spreading

An oceanic survey over the Reykjanes Ridge, part of the Mid-Atlantic

Ridge southwest of Iceland, showed an oscillating pattern of magnetic
field strength. This figure illustrates how scientists worked out the
explanation of this pattern.

1. A ship towing a sensitive 2. Record alternating bands

of high and low magnetism.

Iceland

Mid-
Atlantic
Ridge

Symmetrical bands on both sides.

Why?
 Mid-ocean ridge

Million years ago (Ma)

4.0

3.0

2.0

Ocean
crust today

magnetic time scale was

used to date the magnetic
anomalies on the seafloor

Magnetic isochrons on the sea floor

Example

example area: mid-ocean ridge, south of Iceland

Velocity = 60 km / 3.3 mil. yr.
= 18 km / mil. yr. (or 18 mm / yr)

Velocity of seafloor spreading = d / t

Observation: plates being subducted along a large fraction of their

boundaries move faster (eg. the Pacific, Indian, Nazca, Cocos).
While others move more slowly
(North American, South American, Euraasian, Antarctic plates)
There is also evidence that overriding plates, as well as subducting plates, are
pulled toward convergent boundaries by gravitational forces. Eg. as the Nazca
Plate is subducted beneath South America, it causes Puru-Chile Trench to
(3) Rates and history of plate motion

Example relative plate velocities:

East Pacific Rise (Pacific and Nazca plates) : 138-150 mm/yr

South Atlantic (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) : 34 -35 mm/yr

Southern Ocean, south of Australia : 70 -75 mm/yr

Southern Ocean, south of Africa : 14 mm/yr

(3) Rates and history of plate motion

Reconstructing the history of plate motions:

Transform-fault boundaries indicate the directions of

relative plate movement
Seafloor isochrons reveals the positions of divergent
boundaries in earlier times

1. Assembly and breakup of the supercontinent

Rodinia

2. Assembly and breakup of the supercontinent

Pangaea
 (3) Rates and history of plate motion
ASSEMBLY OF RODINIA
Late Proterozoic

The supercontinent of Rodinia

formed about 1.1 billion years ago;
began to break up about 750 million
years ago

The distribution of continents and

oceans between Rodinia and the
assembly of Pangaea

ASSEMBLY OF PANGAEA
Middle Ordovician (458 mya)

Early Devonian (390 mya)

Early Triassic (237 mya)

Pangaea is formed
BREAKUP OF PANGAEA
Early Jurassic (195 mya)

Late Jurassic (152 mya)

Pangaea is being rifted

Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary (66 mya)

The lithospheric plates are also active participants in the flow. In convergence
zones, the gravitational pull exerted by the cold (heavy) slabs of old subducting
lithosphere drags the plates downward into the mantle they move faster.
Tectonic movement

North China
Europe
South China
North
America

Africa
South
India
America
Australia

Pangaea is formed ( )

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement

North China

Europe South China

North
America

Africa
South
India
America
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

North China

South China
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement

North China

South China
Europe
North
America

Africa
South India
America
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

China

Europe
North
America

Africa
South India
America
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement

China

Europe
North
America

Africa
South India
America
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

China
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement

China Volcanic activity

in Hong Kong
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

China Volcanic activity

in Hong Kong
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement

China Volcanic activity

in Hong Kong
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

China Volcanic activity

in Hong Kong
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America
India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

China
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America
India
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

China
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America
India

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

China
Europe
North
America

Africa
South
America
India

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

North Europe China

America

Africa
South
America
India

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

North Europe China

America

Africa
South
America
India

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

North
America Europe
China

Africa
South
America India

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement Yanshan Movement

North
America Europe
China

Africa
South
America India

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

North Europe
America China

Africa India
South
America

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement

North Europe
America China

Africa India

South
America

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

North Europe
America China

India
Africa
South
America

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Collision of Indian plate

Tectonic movement with Euroasia plate;
Uplift of Tibet plateau

North Europe
America China

India
Africa
South
America

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement Uplift of Tibet plateau

North Europe
America
China
India
Africa
South
America

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

Tectonic movement Uplift of Tibet Plateau

North Europe
America
China
India
Africa
South
America

Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004
Tectonic movement

North Europe
America
China
India
Africa
South
America
Australia

PLATES 2004 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, October 15, 2004

5. Regional Geological Setting of Hong Kong

Hong Kong is situated on the
southeastern margin of the Asian
landmass which, in China,
consists predominantly of
Precambrian gneisses (4000 -
2500 Ma), Neoproterozoic (1000 -
550 Ma) and Phanerozoic (<550
Ma) sedimentary rocks, and
Mesozoic volcanic rocks and
granites (cf left Figure). This
continental crust is a combination
of several tectonic blocks, whose
boundaries are defined by
structurally complex zones.
Commonly, the boundaries
between the blocks are also
associated with arc volcanism
and granite plutonism.
Simplified geological map of southeast Sewell et al. (2000) The Pre-Quaternary
China (after BGMRGP, 1988) Geology of Hong Kong

https://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about-
The Geology of Hong Kong
us/organisation/geo/pub_info/memoirs
(Interactive On-line)
/geology/index.html (Online)
 The continental crust of China extends
Regional Geological Setting for over 200 km offshore. Further to
the east, the Philippines and Taiwan
form part of a series of volcanic island
arcs that are related to the
northeastward spreading and
subduction of the Philippines Oceanic
Plate. To the southeast, the South
China Sea is floored by oceanic crust
which formed by sea floor spreading
between 30 and 8 million years ago
(Taylor & Hayes, 1980, 1983). In
response to this period of spreading, a
series of extensional, fault-bounded
sedimentary basins developed along
the continental margin.

Southeastern China is composed of

two major crustal blocks: the Yangtze
Block, bounded to the north by the
North China Block; and the Cathaysia
Block in the south. Together, these
comprise the South China Block.
Sewell et al. (2000)

Tectonic setting of southeastern China

(b) At the beginning of
Palaeozoic, the
(a) The South supercontinent of
China Block Gondwana formed in
was part of the southern hemisphere,
supercontinent South China Block lay
Rodinia along eastern margin
of Gondwana

(d) Form the Eurasian

(c) During the continent during
early Palaeozoic, Permian to Jurassic
both North and times. India drifted
South China northwards, away
blocks detached from Gondwana,
from Gondwana during the Cretaceous
and collided with
Eurasia during the
Cenozoic.
Plate tectonic reconstructions (modified after Metcalfe (1996) and Li
(1998), after Sewell et al. (2000)
Era Period Epoch Abs Age (mil yr)
Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene
0.01
Pleistocene

Found corresponding rock formation in Hong Kong

2
Tertiary Pliocene
5.3
Miocene
23
Oligocene
34
Eocene
56
Paleocene
66
Mesozoic Cretaceous 146
Jurassic
200
Triassic No record
251
Paleozoic Permian
299
Carboniferous Pennsylvanian
318
Mississippian 359
Devonian
416
Silurian
443

none
Ordovician
488
Cambrian
542
Precambrian Earlier

Etymology:
Quaternary: Quad (four)
Tertiary: three
Cretaceous: Creta, Latin, chalk
Jurassic: Jura Mountain
Triassic: Tri=three
Permian: Perm in Russia
Carboniferous carbon, coal bed;
Devonian: Devonshire, England;
Silurian: Silures, ancient people in south Wales;
Ordovician: Ordovices, ancient people in northern Wales;
Cambrian: Cambria, in middle Wales
Paleogeographic of southeast China (Swell et al. 2000)
(a) Precambrian rocks of Neoproterozoic age are (b) In the early Palaeozoic, mud and sand
widely exposed over southern China within a series were deposited along the axis of the
of northeast-trending depositional basins and basin with more clastic-dominated
troughs. sequences on the slope and in nearshore
environments.
b (c) The oldest rocks in Hong Kong were
deposited as sediments on alluvial
floodplains, in intertidal deltas and in a
shallow continental sea, during the late
Palaeozoic. These Devonian sediments
are likely to have originated from erosion
of a continental landmass which once lay
to the southeast of Hong Kong before its
detachment and migration during the
Permian to Jurassic.
(d) Continued submergence and
deepening of the offshore basin led to
deposition of carbonaceous silt and mud
and later, shelf carbonates. These are
now preserved in Hong Kong as
Carboniferous siltstone, mudstone and
marble.

Paleogeographic of southeast China (Swell et al. 2000)

(e) A deep marine environment then (f) A major period of uplift and erosion,
developed as sea-level continued to accompanied by intrusion of granites
rise. This is represented by throughout eastern China during the
fossiliferous siltstones and Triassic. In Hong Kong, this tectonic
mudstones of Early Permian age; event is recorded solely by an intrusion of
granite in Deep Bay. Following this event,
e f a shallow marine environment developed
during the Early Jurassic followed by
gentle uplift and the beginning of a major
episode of volcanic - plutonic activity.
Widespread volcanism and plutonism
occurred throughout southeastern China
from the Middle Jurassic to the
Cretaceous. This is represented in Hong
Kong by thick accumulations of
pyroclastic material and voluminous
granitic intrusions.
g h (g) Following cessation of this igneous
activity in the Early Cretaceous, the
volcanic pile was extensively eroded and
deposition occurred in northeast-trending
intermontane basins. In Hong Kong,
thick 'red-bed' conglomeratic sequences
of Early to Late Cretaceous age indicate
that the climate was probably hot and
dry.
Paleogeographic of southeast China (Swell et al. 2000)

(h) In the early Tertiary, a particularly arid climate ensued with the development of evaporitic
deposits in intermontane basins. There is no further stratigraphic record preserved in Hong
Kong until the Quaternary, when thick non-marine and marine deposits accumulated in low-
lying areas. During the cooler glacial periods,
when sea level was as much as 120
e f
metres lower than today, the coastline
was about 100 kilometres south of
Hong Kong and large volumes of
alluvium were deposited on the
exposed areas of former seabed.
Following the end of the last glacial
period, about 11,000 years ago, sea
level began to rise rapidly, probably
reaching its present height in the
Hong Kong region about 8,000 years
g h ago.

Faults of Hong Kong

Individual faults within

Hong Kong can be
traced for up to 60 km
and are associated with
zones of more generally
brittle - ductile
deformation up to 1 km
wide. They form many of
the major northeast-
trending valley systems
in Hong Kong. However,
most faults intersected in
boreholes or tunnels
appear to be only metres
wide and in a few
places, tens of metres
wide at the most.

Hong Kong lies at the southwestern extremity of the Lianhuashan Fault Zone, where it is
bounded by the Shenzhen Fault to the north and the Haifeng Fault to the south
The main fault orientations in Hong Kong strike eastnortheast
 Tectonic Process
and Environment
in HK
Cyclic climate
changes
Cenozoic

Subtropic
al
weatherin
g

Faulted basins

Active
volcanism
Mesozoic

Shallow
marine to
fluvial plans
Ma Shi Chau
Tectonic plate
reorganization

Deep
continental
sea

Tectonic Process
and Environment
in HK

Deep
continental
sea

Warm
shallow
sea

/
Deltaic
/alluvial
Paleozoic

plains

Deep sea
(inferred)

139
 A possible geologic model for Mesozoic volcanism in Hong Kong

Source of magma:
fluid induced melting
in subduction zone

Schematic diagram showing possible basaltic underplating, partial melting in the crust and
tectonic setting induced by the subduction of the paleo-Pacific Plate in Hong Kong, SE China
during the late Mesozoic (after Zhou and Li, 2000).

High Island supervolcano) size 18 km, last eruption 140 mya.

Hundreds of km3 1.3 eruption, pile up 1300 m thick over the entire HK.
 6. Major types of rocks: an overview
Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of minerals, or in some cases,
non-mineral solid matter.
Identity is determined by:
* Texture (grain size, how grains fit together etc) and
* Mineralogy (minerals and chemical composition)
Rocks are classified into three groups:
* Igneous
* Sedimentary
* Metamorphic

142

The Rock Cycle

Climate Systems Three families of rocks all can
evolve from one to another;

The cycling of rock is the

result of interactions between
plate tectonics and climate
systems.

Some Common Minerals of Rocks

Plate tectonic system

Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks form by

crystallization from a
magma. Geologists
distinguish two major
types of igneous rocks
intrusive and
extrusive on the basis
of the sizes of their
crystals.

144

Sedimentary rocks Conglomerate,

breccia, Sandstone,
Siltstone,
Mudstone, Shale,
Limestone,
Dolomite, Gypsum,
Halids, and stones
containing fossils

Common minerals of sedimentary rocks:

Most common minerals of siliciclastic
sediments are silicates: quartz, feldspar, and
clay minerals, e.g. sandstone, siltstone.
Most abundant minerals of chemically or bio
precipitated sediments are carbonates: eg.
calcite (main constituent of limestone);
dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate);
limestone 145
Metamorphic rocks
Trench

Continental
crust
Oceanic crust
Continental
lithosphere
Oceanic
lithosphere
Asthenosphere

Sediments
Hornfels
formation
Magma

Hornfels Eclogite Micaschist Blueschist

Marble
Contact metamorphism Ultra-high-pressure Regional High-pressure, low-
Occurs in limited areas Metamorphism Metamorphism temperature Metamorphism
where magma intrusion occurs deep in the occurs where high occurs where oceanic crust
meta-morphoses continental pressures and subducts beneath the
neighboring rock by its lithosphere and temperature extend leading edge of a 146
heat, forming hornfels oceanic crust over large regions continental plate

Major rock types in Hong Kong

Time Type
Late Palaeozoic Sedimentary Rocks
Mesozoic Pre-Volcanic Sedimentary Rocks
Mesozoic Volcanic and Related Rocks
Mesozoic Granite and Related Rocks Metamorphic Rocks (marbles)

Mesozoic Post-Volcanic and

Tertiary Sedimentary Rocks
Quaternary deposit (onshore/marine)
Fill
 Major rock types in Hong Kong

http://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/en/paper_map/image/
Enlargement/Thematic/AR_3_G_English_2015_3_PREV
IEW.jpg
Distribution of Rocks in Hong Kong

Volcanic rocks occupy about 50% of land surface area, most of them forming hilly terrain
Plutonic rocks occupy about 30% of land surface area, but forming about 80% of the
developed area

From Hong Kong Geology Guide Book

https://www.cedd.gov.hk/filemanager/eng/content_429/hkgeologyguidebook_e.pdf