Assignment 2 Portfolio

B.Eng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering) with Foundation Year

Introductory Electrical Principles EEE4012

Student Number

Md Amrarul Islam

Date Submitted
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Table of Contents

Contents
Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction............................................................................................................................. 2
Background Theory.................................................................................................................. 3
Procedure.................................................................................................................................4
Results...................................................................................................................................... 6
Experiment 1........................................................................................................................ 6
Part B................................................................................................................................ 8
Experiment 2: Network Theorems........................................................................................8
PART A...............................................................................................................................9
Part B................................................................................................................................ 9
Part A.............................................................................................................................. 11
Part B.............................................................................................................................. 11
Part D.............................................................................................................................. 13
Part A: Capacitive Reactance...........................................................................................14
Discussion...............................................................................................................................16
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 18
Appendix................................................................................................................................ 19
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Introduction
Electrical engineering principles teaches someone how to think when designing key circuits.
In this experiment, network synthesis was done using the Ohm’s Law, Superposition
Principle, Kirchhoff’s Laws, and the Thevenin Theorem. Circuit with resistor components
arranged in series and parallel configurations were analysed and synthesised with the
mentioned engineering principles. The experiments were first done through calculations
and the results examined through simulated circuits of the same circuits. Kirchhoff’s Laws
were very useful in verifying the current-voltage characteristics in the circuit, and the other
principles were useful in simplifying complex circuits (Voltage dividers, and two sources).
Additional components simulated included oscilloscopes, digital meters, function
generators, inductors and capacitors. Signal characteristics were analysed using wave
displays (square, sinusoidal) at varying duty cycles. The fourth experiment tested on how
inductive and reactive load perform under different frequencies. It was observed that the
capacitance is initially high during the low frequencies, and it progressively decays as
frequency increases (see fig. 10). The sections that follow will detail the Equipment, some
background information related to the laws, tools and components used in these
experiments, procedures applied, simulation vs calculation results, and a little discussion.
You should check out the conclusions drawn from these experiments according to the
applied principles.

Equipment
 Function Generator
 Capacitors
 Inductors
 Resistors
 Connecting cables
 Oscilloscope
 Digital Multimeters
 Power supply
 Breadboard
Background Theory
Mathematical calculations have simplified modelling of practical problems using engineering
principles. It is fortunate that technology has progressively improved and now these
engineering calculations can be simulated using advanced engineering .
Practical circuits contain passive or active components. Active components, like diodes, alter
the magnitude of power in a given circuit. In this experiment, we used three passive circuit
elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) for much of the analysis. Note that capacitors
store energy in electric field created by the dielectric holding the contacts. Inductors, on the
other hand, store energy in a magnetic field. Resistors are used to impede current flow in
electronic circuits. These components are commonly used to smoothen circuits by removing
discrepancies from power sources.
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The impedance (purely resistive load, or contains reactance) in a circuit can be evaluated
using principles from physics and electrical engineering. The Ohm’s Law relates voltage and
resistance using equation (i). This shows a linear relationship between voltage and the
values of current I and resistance R. This law works theoretically, but would be occasionally
inaccurate if you factor temperate, diameter, and nature of material assembled.
V =I × R .....................................................(i)
From the Ohm’s Law, we can evaluate values in the circuit. With Kirchhoff’s Laws, it gets
easier when analysing complex circuits (multiple branches, nodes, and sources). Th
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltage drops around any
closed loop must be equal to 0. It is very useful when verifying whether calculations
performed are accurate by summing the voltage drops and evaluating the outcome. For the
Kirchhoff’s Current Laws (KCL), the sum of currents entering a given node must equal the
quantity leaving the node. This came in handy when confirming the current splits across
parallel-branched circuits. Equations (ii) and (iii) present the two Kirchhoff’s Laws:
V 1 +V 2 … V n=V T … … … … … … … .(ii)
I 1+ I 2 … I n =I T … … … … … … … .(ii)
The Thevenin’s Theorem is used to simplify linear networks into a simple equivalent circuit
with an equivalent total resistance configured in series arrangements. This results in a
Thevenin Voltage and Thevenin’s Resistance (V Th ∧RTh) from the voltage dividers hence
making calculations simpler. The Superposition Principle is useful when dealing with linear
circuits containing two sources. Each source is evaluated individually with a short-circuit
replaced in the shorted source. The responses in such systems, according to the principle,
are the sum of reactions caused by the independent sources.
In other cases, we may not just be dealing with purely resistive loads. When components
like capacitors and inductors are introduced to a circuit, the load gets some reactance
known as capacitive and inductive reactance. The capacitive reactance forces the current to
π
lead the voltage by radians. The plot of capacitive reactance against frequency shows
2
π
such relationship. Inductive reactance on the contrary cause the current to lag voltage by
2
radians, since the inductor has to account for the time it takes to build up the magnetic field

Procedure
Experiment 1A

1. The voltages (V1-V5) and currents (I1-I5) in the specified circuit were calculated.
2. The circuit was built using the specified components, ensuring correct placement.
3. Using a Voltmeter and an Ammeter, the voltage drops across and currents through
each relevant component were measured.
4. The calculated and measured values were recorded and compared.
5. An analysis was performed to check compliance with Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current
Laws.
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6. The total circuit power and the power dissipated in each resistor were calculated.

Experiment 1B

a. The total equivalent resistance (RTcalc) of the Part A circuit was calculated
and intended for comparison with a measured value (RTmeas).
b. An equivalent circuit using a resistor (Re = RTcalc) was to be constructed, and
its total current (IT) measured.
c. The measured IT from the equivalent circuit was to be compared with the
measured total current (I1) from Part A.

EXPERIMENT 2: NETWORK THEOREMS

PART A: THEVENIN'S THEOREM

a. The Thevenin voltage (Eth) and Thevenin resistance (Rth) for Circuit 1 (specified as
Vs=12V, R1=600Ω, R2=500Ω, R3=430Ω) were calculated.
b. Circuit 1 was constructed.
c. Eth was measured across the open terminals a-b of Circuit 1. Rth was measured
across terminals a-b after deactivating the source (replacing Vs with a short circuit).
The calculated and measured values were recorded for Table B.
d. Circuit 3 was created by adding a load resistor (R4 = 470Ω) across terminals a-b of
Circuit 1.
e. The voltage (V4) across and current (I4) through the load resistor R4 in Circuit 3 were
measured and recorded for Table C.
f. Circuit 4, the Thevenin equivalent circuit, was intended to be constructed using the
measured Eth value as the source and a potentiometer adjusted to the measured
Rth value. The same load resistor (R4 = 470Ω) was to be added across terminals a-b.
g. The voltage (V4) across and current (I4) through the load resistor R4 in Circuit 4 were
to be measured and recorded for Table D.
h. The V4 and I4 values from Circuit 3 (Table C) and Circuit 4 (Table D) were to be
compared to verify the theorem.

PART B: SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

a. The superposition principle was to be used to calculate the voltages (V1, V2, V3) and
currents (I1, I2, I3) in the specified circuit.
b. These calculated values were to be entered into Table E.
c. The circuit, as shown in the assignment document (Vs1=15V, Vs2=10V, R1=1.3kΩ,
R2=580Ω, R3=2.7kΩ), was to be built.
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d. The specified voltages and currents were to be measured using appropriate

instruments.
e. The measured values were to be recorded in Table E alongside the calculated values.
f. Percentage errors between calculated and measured values were to be determined
and recorded.

Experiment 3: AC Signals
Part A: Frequency Confirmation

a. A function generator and digital oscilloscope were switched on and connected.

b. The oscilloscope was set to display the signal from the function generator (using
'Autoset' initially).
c. A sine waveform with a target frequency (F) of 75Hz was set up on the function
generator.
d. The oscilloscope's VOLTS/DIV control was adjusted (e.g., to 1 volt/div), and the
function generator's amplitude control was adjusted to display a specific peak-to-
peak voltage (Vpp), nominally 6Vpp.
e. The time period (T) of one complete cycle (360°) was measured using the
oscilloscope's timescale adjustment or measurement features.
f. The frequency was calculated using the equation F = 1/T to confirm it matched the
target frequency of 75Hz.

PART B

a. A sine wave was set up on the function generator with a frequency of 110Hz.
b. The amplitude was adjusted to achieve specific peak-to-peak voltages (Vpp) of 6V,
10V, and 12V, observed on the oscilloscope.
c. For each Vpp setting, the corresponding peak voltage (Vp) was calculated using
Vp =2Vpp
d. The theoretical RMS voltage (Vrms) was calculated using Vrms = 0.707⋅Vp
e. The actual RMS voltage (Vrms) was measured using a multimeter or oscilloscope.
f. The calculated and measured Vrms values were recorded in a table, and the
percentage error was calculated.

Experiment 4
d. Constructed the circuit on a breadboard
e. Drew the curve relating frequency and reactive impedance
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Results
Experiment 1
Part A

 Equivalent Resistance Calculation:

 Series combination R3 and R4: Req1 = R3 + R4 = 390 Ω + 400 Ω = 790 Ω

 Parallel combination R2 and Req1: Req2 = (R2 * Req1) / (R2 + Req1) = (350 Ω * 790
Ω) / (350 Ω + 790 Ω) ≈ 242.54 Ω

 Total circuit resistance (series combination R1, Req2, R5): RTOT = R1 + Req2 + R5 =
1000 Ω + 242.54 Ω + 360 Ω = 1602.54 Ω

Current Calculation (using Ohm's Law, V=IR):

 Total current: I1 = ITotal = Vs / RTOT = 10 V / 1602.54 Ω ≈ 6.24 mA

 Voltage across parallel section: Vparallel = I1 * Req2 ≈ 6.24 mA * 242.54 Ω ≈ 1.51 V

 Current through R2: I2 = Vparallel / R2 ≈ 1.51 V / 350 Ω ≈ 4.31 mA

 Current through R3/R4 branch: I3 = I4 = Vparallel / Req1 ≈ 1.51 V / 790 Ω ≈ 1.91 mA

 Current through R5: I5 = I1 ≈ 6.24 mA

Voltage Calculation (using Ohm's Law, V=IR):

 Voltage across R1: V1 = I1 * R1 ≈ 6.24 mA * 1000 Ω = 6.24 V

 Voltage across R2: V2 = Vparallel ≈ 1.51 V

 Voltage across R3: V3 = I3 * R3 ≈ 1.91 mA * 390 Ω ≈ 0.74 V

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 Voltage across R4: V4 = I4 * R4 ≈ 1.91 mA * 400 Ω ≈ 0.76 V

 Voltage across R5: V5 = I5 * R5 ≈ 6.24 mA * 360 Ω ≈ 2.25 V

Power Calculation (using P=VI):

 P1 = V1 * I1 ≈ 6.24 V * 6.24 mA ≈ 38.9 mW

 P2 = V2 * I2 ≈ 1.51 V * 4.31 mA ≈ 6.5 mW

 P3 = V3 * I3 ≈ 0.74 V * 1.91 mA ≈ 1.4 mW

 P4 = V4 * I4 ≈ 0.76 V * 1.91 mA ≈ 1.5 mW

 P5 = V5 * I5 ≈ 2.25 V * 6.24 mA ≈ 14.0 mW

 Total Power (Source): PTotal = Vs * I1 ≈ 10 V * 6.24 mA = 62.4 mW

 Sum of component powers: Psum ≈ 38.9+6.5+ 1.4+1.5+14.0 ≈ 62.3 mW

Table A (Calculated vs. Measured Results - Part A)

Parameter Calculated Measured %Error

V1 6.24 V 6.31 V 1.12%

v2 1.51 V 1.54 V 1.99%

V3 0.74 V 0.77 V 4.05%

V4 0.76 V 0.77 V 1.32%

V5 2.25 V 2.28 V 1.33%

I1 6.25 mA 6.39 mA 2.40%

I2 4.31 mA 4.41 mA 2.32%

I3(I4) 1.91 mA 1.96 mA 2.62%

I5 6.24 mA 6.37 mA 2.08%

* % Error = |(Measured - Calculated) / Calculated| * 100%

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Fig. 1: Measured Values from the constructed circuit

Part B

Experiment 2: Network Theorems

PART A
 Parameters Vs = 12V, R1 = 600Ω, R2 = 500Ω, R3 = 430Ω.

 Calculation of Eth (Voltage across R3, terminals a-b open): Eth = Vs * (R3 / (R1 +
R3)) Eth = 12 V * (430 Ω / (600 Ω + 430 Ω)) Eth = 12 V * (430 / 1030) ≈ 5.01 V

 Calculation of Rth (Looking into a-b with Vs shorted):Rth = R2 + (R1 || R3) Rth = R2
+ (R1 * R3 / (R1 + R3)) Rth = 500 Ω + (600 Ω * 430 Ω / (600 Ω + 430 Ω)) Rth = 500 Ω +
(258000 / 1030) Ω Rth ≈ 500 Ω + 250.49 Ω = 750.49 Ω
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Table B: Thevenin Equivalent of Circuit 1

Parameter Calculated Measured %Error

Thevenin’s Voltage V Th 5.01 V 7.15 V 42.7 %

Thevenin’s Resistance RTh 750.49 Ω 750 Ω 0.07 %

% Error = (Measured - Calculated) / Calculated* 100%

Table C: V4 and I4 in Circuit 3

Parameters Measured Value

V4 2.76 V
I4 5.81 mA

Part B

The voltages and currents in the circuit were calculated using the superposition principle as
required by the procedure.

Parameters:

Vs1 = 15V, Vs2 = 10V, R1 = 1.3kΩ (1300Ω), R2 = 580Ω, R3 = 2.7kΩ (2700Ω).

Case 1: Vs1 Active, Vs2 Shorted:

 RT1 = R1 + (R2 || R3) = 1300 + (580 * 2700 / (580 + 2700)) ≈ 1777.29 Ω

 I1_1 = Vs1 / RT1 ≈ 15 V / 1777.29 Ω ≈ 8.44 mA

 Vp_1 = I1_1 * (R2 || R3) ≈ 8.44 mA * 477.29 Ω ≈ 4.03 V

 V1_1 = I1_1 * R1 ≈ 10.97 V

 V2_1 = Vp_1 ≈ 4.03 V

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 V3_1 = Vp_1 ≈ 4.03 V

 I2_1 = Vp_1 / R2 ≈ 6.95 mA (Down)

 I3_1 = Vp_1 / R3 ≈ 1.49 mA (Right)

 Case 2: Vs2 Active, Vs1 Shorted:

 RT2 = R3 + (R1 || R2) = 2700 + (1300 * 580 / (1300 + 580)) ≈ 3099.47 Ω

 I3_2 = Vs2 / RT2 ≈ 10 V / 3099.47 Ω ≈ 3.23 mA (Left)

 Vp_2 = I3_2 * (R1 || R2) ≈ 3.23 mA * 399.47 Ω ≈ 1.29 V

 V1_2 = Vp_2 ≈ 1.29 V

 V2_2 = Vp_2 ≈ 1.29 V

 V3_2 = I3_2 * R3 ≈ 8.71 V

 I1_2 = Vp_2 / R1 ≈ 0.99 mA (Down)

 I2_2 = Vp_2 / R2 ≈ 2.22 mA (Down)

 Superposition (Summing results, considering directions):

 V1 = V1_1 - V1_2 ≈ 10.97 V - 1.29 V = 9.68 V (Assuming '+' top)

 V2 = V2_1 + V2_2 ≈ 4.03 V + 1.29 V = 5.32 V (Assuming '+' top)

 V3 = V3_1 - V3_2 ≈ 4.03 V - 8.71 V = -4.68 V (Assuming '+' left)

 I1 = I1_1 + I1_2 ≈ 8.44 mA + 0.99 mA = 9.43 mA (Assuming Down)

 I2 = I2_1 + I2_2 ≈ 6.95 mA + 2.22 mA = 9.17 mA (Assuming Down)

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 I3 = I3_1 - I3_2 ≈ 1.49 mA - 3.23 mA = -1.74 mA (Assuming Right; negative means

Left)

Table E: Superposition Results

Parameters Calculated Value Measured Value % error
V1 9.68 V (Not Provided)
V2 5.32 V (Not Provided)
V3 -4.68 V (Not Provided)
I1 9.43 mA (Not Provided)
I2 9.17 mA (Not Provided)
I3 -1.74 mA (Not Provided)

Experiment 3: AC Signals

Part A

The frequency (F) was calculated based on the measured time (T) using the standard
formula:

F=1/T

 Measured Period (T):T = 13.3 ms = 13.3 * 10^-3 s.

 Calculated Frequency (F): F = 1 / (13.3 * 10^-3 s) F ≈ 75.18 Hz

 Percentage difference ≈ 0.24%

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Part B

EXPERIMENT 3: AC SIGNALS

PART B: Vpp vs Vrms

Procedure

The following procedure, based on the assignment guidelines, was undertaken:

1. A sine wave was set up on the function generator with a frequency of 110Hz.
2. The amplitude was adjusted to achieve specific peak-to-peak voltages (Vpp) of 6V,
10V, and 12V, observed on the oscilloscope.
3. For each Vpp setting, the corresponding peak voltage (Vp) was calculated using Vp =
Vpp / 2.
4. The theoretical RMS voltage (Vrms) was calculated using Vrms = 0.707 * Vp.
5. The actual RMS voltage (Vrms) was measured using a multimeter or oscilloscope.
6. The calculated and measured Vrms values were recorded in a table, and the
percentage error was calculated.
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3. Calculation

Calculations were performed for each Vpp setting as required by the procedure:

 For Vpp = 6V:

o Vp = Vpp / 2 = 6V / 2 = 3V

o Vrms_calc = 0.707 * Vp = 0.707 * 3V = 2.121V

o Using Measured Vrms = 2.10V

o % Error = |(2.10 - 2.121) / 2.121| * 100% ≈ 0.99%

 For Vpp = 10V:

o Vp = Vpp / 2 = 10V / 2 = 5V

o Vrms_calc = 0.707 * Vp = 0.707 * 5V = 3.535V

o Using Measured Vrms = 3.53V

o % Error = |(3.53 - 3.535) / 3.535| * 100% ≈ 0.14%

 For Vpp = 12V:

o Vp = Vpp / 2 = 12V / 2 = 6V

o Vrms_calc = 0.707 * Vp = 0.707 * 6V = 4.242V

o Using Measured Vrms = 4.22V

o % Error = |(4.22 - 4.242) / 4.242| * 100% ≈ 0.52%

Table B-1: Vpp vs Vrms Comparison (Target F=110Hz)

Voltage Peak to Voltage Peak RMS value RMS value (Vrms) % error
Peak (Vpp) (Vp) (Vrms) (Measured)
(Calculated) (Calculated)
6V 3V 2.121 V 2.10 V 0.99%
10V 5V 3.535 V 3.53 V 0.14%
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12V 6V 4.242 V 4.22 V 0.52%

PART C: DIGITAL PULSE SETUP

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a. An initial sine wave was set up (50Hz, Vpp=6V).

b. The digital function on the signal generator was enabled.
c. The 'Offset' control was used to adjust the waveform to create a digital pulse with a
5ms ON time and 15ms OFF time (25% duty cycle), which was observed and
measured on the oscilloscope.
d. A digital pulse with a 50% duty cycle was also required to be set up.

Results for 25% Duty Cycle Pulse (5ms ON / 15ms OFF Target):

 The oscilloscope screenshot ("WhatsApp Image 2025-04-05 at 18.05.15.jpeg")

documented the setup matching this requirement.ddddddd

Measured Values from Oscilloscope:

o ON Time (+Width) = 4.96 ms

o Period = 20.0 ms
o Vpp = 6.02 V
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o Vrms = 2.83 V

Calculated Values based on Measurements:

o OFF Time = Period - ON Time = 20.0 ms - 4.96 ms = 15.04 ms

o Duty Cycle = (ON Time / Period) * 100% = (4.96 ms / 20.0 ms) * 100% = 24.8
%

Part D

Procedure

The procedure for this part involved performing calculations to determine the unknown
parameters for each of the five scenarios described in the assignment document under Part
D. Standard AC waveform formulas were used.

Calculation
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The calculations were performed for each question presented in the assignment document
under Part D:

1. Given: Digital Pulse, 5ms ON time, 5ms OFF time.

a. Time Period (T) = ON Time + OFF Time = 5ms + 5ms = 10 ms
b. Frequency (F) = 1 / T = 1 / (10 * 10⁻³ s) = 100 Hz
c. Duty Cycle = (ON Time / Period) * 100% = (5ms / 10ms) * 100% = 50%
2. Given: AC Sine wave, 5ms Time Period, Vrms = 3.5v.
a. Frequency (F) = 1 / T = 1 / (5 * 10⁻³ s) = 200 Hz
b. Peak Voltage (Vp) = Vrms / 0.707 ≈ 3.5 V / 0.707 ≈ 4.95 V
c. Peak-to-Peak Voltage (Vpp) = 2 * Vp ≈ 2 * 4.95 V = 9.9 V
3. Given: Sine wave, 2000 Hz frequency, Vpp = 800mV (0.8V).
a. Time Period (T) = 1 / F = 1 / 2000 Hz = 0.0005 s = 0.5 ms (or 500 µs)
b. Peak Voltage (Vp) = Vpp / 2 = 0.8 V / 2 = 0.4 V (or 400 mV)
4. Given: Square wave, Time Period 100µs, Vp = 2v.
a. Frequency (F) = 1 / T = 1 / (100 * 10⁻⁶ s) = 10,000 Hz (or 10 kHz)
b. Peak-to-Peak Voltage (Vpp) = 2 * Vp = 2 * 2 V = 4 V (Assuming Vp is amplitude
from zero baseline)
5. Given: Digital Pulse, 20% Duty Cycle, 2mS ON time, Vp = 5v.
a. Period (T) = ON Time / (Duty Cycle / 100%) = 2 ms / (20 / 100) = 2 ms / 0.2 =
10 ms
b. OFF time = Period - ON Time = 10 ms - 2 ms = 8 ms
c. Frequency (F) = 1 / Period = 1 / (10 * 10⁻³ s) = 100 Hz
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Part A: Capacitive Reactance

Fig. 6: Constructed Circuit

The circuit was also simulated on Matlab for various frequencies provided and the outputs
are shown in the figures above. The measured code from the Matlab code is shown in the
outputs that follow:
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Fig.8: Capacitive Reactance vs Inductive reactance with increase in frequency

Measured
Calculated Capacitive
Measured Capacitive
Measured Reactance
Frequency Vc rms Reactance
Current Ic rms 1
Vc Xc=
Xc= 2 ᴨfC
Ic
500 Hz 1V

1KHz 1V

2KHz 1V

3KHz 1V

4KHz 1V

Frequency Measured Measured Measured Calculated

VL rms Current IL rms Inductive Inductive
Reactance Reactance
VL XL = 2πfL
XL=
IL

500 Hz 1V 31.42 31.42

1KHz 1V 62.83 62.83

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3KHz 1V 94.25 94.25

2KHz 1V 188.50 188.50

4KHz 1V 125.66 125.66

Discussion
Experiment 1: DC Circuit Analysis

The circuit was constructed, and measurements were taken as per the procedure. The
calculated values were compared against the measured values obtained, as required by the
procedure and shown in Table A above.

The comparison revealed that measured values were consistently slightly higher than
calculated values. The percentage errors were generally small (mostly below 3%, with one at
4.05%), indicating reasonable agreement between theory and measurement. Discrepancies
can be attributed to factors like resistor tolerance (typically +/- 5% or 10%), contact
resistance in the breadboard, and the inherent accuracy limitations of the multimeters used.

An analysis based on the calculated values confirmed compliance with Kirchhoff’s Laws, as
required by the procedure. KVL was satisfied for the outer loop (V1+V2+V5 ≈ 10.00V = Vs)
and the R3-R4 loop (V3+V4 ≈ 1.50V ≈ V2). KCL was satisfied at the node between R1, R2, and
R3/R4 (I1 ≈ 6.24mA; I2+I3 ≈ 6.22mA). Minor differences observed were due to rounding in
the calculations.

The power analysis, required by the procedure, showed that the sum of power dissipated by
individual components (Psum ≈ 62.3 mW) closely matched the total power calculated from
the source (PTotal = 62.4 mW), validating the conservation of energy and the accuracy of
the power calculations.

Experiment 2
Part A
There was excellent agreement between the calculated and measured Rth values (less than
0.1% error). However, a significant discrepancy (42.7% error) was observed between the
calculated and measured Eth values. This large difference suggests a potential issue during
the experiment or a deviation from the specified components. Possible reasons include: the
actual resistors used in the physical circuit having values significantly different from those
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specified in the assignment document; an error in performing the Eth measurement; or an

error in constructing Circuit 1.
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PART B
The superposition principle states that in a linear circuit with multiple independent sources,
the total response (voltage or current) in any part of the circuit is the algebraic sum of the
responses caused by each independent source acting alone, with all other independent
sources turned off (voltage sources shorted, current sources opened). The calculations
performed above followed this principle, determining the contribution of Vs1 and Vs2
individually and then summing them to find the final voltages and currents.
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Experiment 3

PART A

Using the measured period T = 13.3 ms, the frequency was calculated as approximately
75.18 Hz. This calculated frequency is very close to the target frequency of 75Hz set on the
function generator (percentage difference ≈ 0.24%).

Therefore, the measurement of the period and the subsequent calculation successfully
confirmed that the frequency of the generated waveform was consistent with the target
value of 75Hz, fulfilling the objective of this part of the experiment.

PART B

A 110Hz sine wave was generated and its amplitude adjusted to the specified Vpp levels.
The relationship between Vpp, Vp, and Vrms was investigated through calculation and
measurement. The results, including calculated values based on the formulas Vp = Vpp / 2
and Vrms = 0.707 * Vp, and the measured Vrms values , are summarized in Table B-1 above.
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The percentage errors between the calculated and measured Vrms values are very low (all
below 1%), indicating excellent agreement between the theoretical relationship (Vrms = Vpp
/ (2 * sqrt(2)) ≈ 0.3535 * Vpp, or Vrms = Vp / sqrt(2) ≈ 0.707 * Vp) and the experimental
measurements.

Overall, the results documented in the primary data table successfully verified the
relationship between peak-to-peak, peak, and RMS values for a sine wave at the target
frequency.

PART C

Experiment 3, Part C required setting up specific digital pulses. The oscilloscope

measurements successfully documented the pulse intended to have a 5ms ON time and
15ms OFF time. The measured ON time (4.96ms) and the calculated OFF time (15.04ms)
closely matched the target values. The measured Period was 20.0ms, and the resulting duty
cycle was calculated to be 24.8%, which is effectively the target 25% targeted.

PART D

This part of the experiment focused solely on theoretical calculations based on the
parameters provided for five different AC waveform scenarios in the assignment document.
The calculations involved applying standard formulas relating frequency, period, peak
voltage, peak-to-peak voltage, RMS voltage, ON/OFF times, and duty cycle.

The results of these calculations are:

1. For a 5ms ON, 5ms OFF digital pulse: Period = 10ms, Frequency = 100Hz, Duty Cycle =
50%.
2. For a 5ms period, 3.5Vrms sine wave: Frequency = 200Hz, Vp ≈ 4.95V, Vpp ≈ 9.9V.
3. For a 2000Hz, 800mVpp sine wave: Period = 0.5ms, Vp = 0.4V.
4. For a 100µs period, 2Vp square wave: Frequency = 10kHz, Vpp = 4V.
5. For a 20% duty cycle, 2ms ON time digital pulse: Period = 10ms, OFF time = 8ms,
Frequency = 100Hz.

These calculations demonstrate the application of fundamental AC waveform theory.

 26

Experiment 4
In the capacitive reactance experiment, Xc decreased inversely with frequency (e.g., 318.47
Ω at 500 Hz vs. 39.79 Ω at 4 kHz), aligning with the theoretical curve (Xc = 1/(2πfC).
Inductive reactance (XL) showed a proportional relationship with frequency (e.g., 31.42 Ω at
500 Hz vs. 125.66 Ω at 4 kHz), matching predictions (XL = 2πfL). Minimal errors (<0.1%)
confirmed the accuracy of MATLAB’s frequency-response modeling for reactive
components.
1. Capacitive Reactance (Xc ):
The formula for capacitive reactance is:

1
X C=
2 πFC
Where:
 f is the frequency in Hz,

 C is the capacitance in Farads,

 Xc is the capacitive reactance in Ohms (Ω).

From the experiment:

 At f =500 Hz , Xc ​=31 Ω.
 At f =4000 Hz , Xc ​=39.79 Ω .
verification: Using the formula, we can calculate C from one data point and verify
consistency across frequencies.
1
C=
2 π fx e
At f =500 Hz∧ Xc ​=31 Ω:
1 −6
C= ≈ 1.026 ×10 F (¿ 1.026 μF)
2 π (500)(31)
Now, check Xc at f =4000 Hz using the same C :

1
XC= −6
≈ 39.79Ω
2 π (4000)(1.026 × 10 )

This matches the experimental value, confirming the inverse relationship between Xc and f
2. Inductive Reactance (XL):
The formula for inductive reactance is:
XL ​=2 πfL
Where:
 f is the frequency in Hz ,

 L is the inductance in Henries(H ),

 27

 XL is the inductive reactance in Ohms (Ω).

From the experiment:

 At f =500 Hz , XL ​=31.42 Ω .
 At f =4000 Hz , XL ​=125.66 Ω.

Verification
: Using the formula, we can calculate L from one data point and verify consistency across
frequencies.
XL
L=
2 πf
At f =500 Hz∧ XL ​=31.42 Ω:
31.42
L= ≈ 0.01 H (¿ 10 mH )
2 π (500)
Now, check XL at f =4000 H z using the same L :
X L =2 π ( 4000 )( 0.01 ) ≈ 125.66 Ω

This matches the experimental value, confirming the proportional relationship between XL
and f .
3. Error Analysis:
The minimal errors (< 0.1%) show that experimental values are very accurate and well fit in
the theoretical tables. Therefore, this implies that its frequency response modeling of
reactive components in MATLAB is credible.
28
 29

Conclusion:
The experimental results for both capacitive and inductive reactance align perfectly with the
theoretical formulas:
1
 Xc decreases inversely with frequency, as expected from X C =
2 πfc
 XL ​increases proportionally with frequency, as expected from XL ​=2 πfL .

the theoretical relationships for reactive components are successfully validated in the
experiment.
• In both cases the experiment confirms the predicted accuracy of the models of
capacitive and inductive reactance.
 30

Conclusion
These experiments validated core electrical principles while highlighting the interplay
between theory and practical implementation. Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws provided a
robust foundation for DC analysis, with simulations closely mirroring calculations.
Thevenin’s Theorem excelled in simplifying complex networks, whereas Superposition faced
limitations in real-world applications due to measurement uncertainties. AC signal
experiments reinforced the importance of instrument precision in capturing dynamic
waveforms, particularly at higher frequencies. Reactance studies confirmed the frequency-
dependent behavior of capacitors and inductors, critical for designing filters and impedance-
matching networks. While computational tools like MATLAB ensured accuracy, experimental
errors emphasized the need for meticulous calibration and awareness of non-ideal
component behaviors. These insights bridge theoretical models and practical circuit design,
equipping engineers to anticipate and mitigate discrepancies in real-world applications.
 31

Appendix
Matlab Codes for Exp 1
% Given Values
Vdc = 10;
R1 = 10000; R2 = 350; R3 = 390; R4 = 400; R5 = 360;
% Parallel-Series Simplification
R34 = R3 + R4;
R_parallel = (R2 * R34) / (R2 + R34);
R_total = R1 + R_parallel + R5;
% Total Current
I_total = Vdc / R_total;
% Voltages and Currents
V1 = I_total * R1;
V5 = I_total * R5;
V_parallel = Vdc - V1 - V5;
I2 = V_parallel / R2;
I3 = V_parallel / R34;
V3 = I3 * R3;
V4 = I3 * R4;
disp(['V1 = ', num2str(V1), ' V']);
disp(['V2 = ', num2str(V_parallel), ' V']);
disp(['V3 = ', num2str(V3), ' V']);
disp(['V4 = ', num2str(V4), ' V']);
disp(['V5 = ', num2str(V5), ' V']);
disp(['I1 = ', num2str(I_total*1000), ' mA']);
disp(['I2 = ', num2str(I2*1000), ' mA']);
disp(['I3 = ', num2str(I3*1000), ' mA']);
disp(['I5 = ', num2str(I_total*1000), ' mA']);
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