Introduction To Solid State Relays

Definition: The Advantages of SSRs

A SSR (solid state relay) can perform many tasks that an EMR • Zero voltage turn-on, low EMil RFI
(electromechanical relay) can perform, The SSR differs in that it has • Random turn-on, proportional control
no moving mechanical parts within it. It is essentially an electronic • Long life (reliability) > 109 operations
device that relies on the electrical, magnetic and optical properties • No contacts - handles high inrush current loads
of semiconductors, and electrical components to achieve its • No acoustical noise
Isolation and relay switching function, • Microprocessor compatible
• Design flexibility
Over the last ten years many standards have been set regarding
• Fast response
SSR packages, most notably the rectangular package introduced
• No moving parts
by us in the early 1970s which has now become an industry
• No contact bounce
standard for power switching using SSRs, with models ranging
from 1 to 125 A
In terms of internal design, the SSR and the EMR are fundamentally
similar in that each has an input electrically isolated from the output
that controls a load, Fig, 1 shows the basic configurations of both
Applications: the SSR and EMR, In the case of the SSR, the isolation is achieved
Since its introduction the SSR, as a technology, has gained by photocoupling and transformer coupling, and in the EMR by
acceptance in many areas, which had previously been the sole means of a magnetic coupling,
domain of the EMR or the Contactor, The major growth areas have
come from Industrial Process Control applications, particularly
heat/cool temperature control, motors, lamps, solenoids, valves,
transformers, The list of applications for the SSR is almost limitless,

The following are typical examples of SSR applications: PHOTODETECTOR

0:
manufacturing equipment, food equipment, security systems, W
m
m
industrial lighting, fire and security systems, dispensing machines, ::J
z
Ul
OPTICAL
production equipment, on-board power control, traffic control, COUPLING
TRIGGER

instrumentation systems, vending machines, test systems, office

machines, medical equipment, display lighting, elevator control,
(A) AC solid state relay (SSR),
metrology equipment entertainment lighting,

The Advantages of the Solid State Relay:

When utilized in the correct manner for the intended application, the
SSR provides many of the characteristics that are often elusive in
the EMR; a high degree of reliability, long service life, significantly
reduced electromagnetic interference, fast response and high
200 mW
COIL

MAGNETIC
COUPLING
~RMATuR:J oI
[ ' ,
MECHANICAL'

'
CONTACTS '

vibration resistance are significant benefits from SSRs,

-~-6

In today's environment we have all come to demand, rather than to

expect, improved performance from the components that we use, (8) Electromagnetic relay (EMR)
The SSR offers Designers, Engineers and Maintenance Engineers
significant advantages over alternative technologies, further Fig I Solid state relay and electromagnetic configLJIations,
enhanced by the use of Surface Mount Solid State circuitry, These
advantages are namely consistency of operation and longer usable Compming the two technologies, the input control circuit of the
lifetime, The SSR has no moving parts to wear out or arcing SSR is functionally equivalent to the coil of the EMR, while the
contacts to deteriorate, which are often the primary cause of failure output device of the SSR peJiorms the switching function of the
within an EMR, The long term reliability of components used within EMR contacts, The operating speed of the EMR is dependent upon
SSRs has become well established throughout industry, and with the time it takes for Its mechanical mass to react to the application
no moving pmts to become fractured, detached, or to I'esonate and removal of a magnetic field, Operating speed of the SSR is
dUI'ing operation, makes the SSR solution more robust when used primarily determined by the switching speed of the output device,
in unfriendly environments, typically much faster - microseconds for DC SSRs compared

150 IPAGEl [C[)TeCtlSUPport] 1 877 702 7700 (toll free)

to milliseconds for EMRs. In most AC SSRs, response time is related DC Switches
to phase angle and frequency of the line, and in the case of The output of a DC SSR can be a bipolar power transistor, with the
the zero voltage/current types, may be deliberately pro- emitter and collector connected to the output terminals, or a power
longed. In the case of AC input control, the operating speeds of MOSFET. Fig. 2 illustrates the schematic and structure of the two
both the EMR and SSR are similarly extended due to phase angle bipolar transistors types, PNP and NPN, the choice of which is
and filtering considerations. primarily a matter of economics, since relay isolation makes it
impossible to tell the difference externally. Current flow in the
transistors is described by the expression:

Output Switching Devices

Referring to Fig. 3, a family of curves is shown indicating the rela-
The AC or DC designation of an SSR generally describes its output tionship between base current 18 and collector Ic' Collector current
switching capability as opposed to its input control voltage require- increases as base current increases along a load line between
ments, which can also be AC or DC. pOints "A" and "8" defined as the active region and determined by
the load resistance. In switching devices such as SSRs, this region
RL
is traversed very quickly (typically less than 10 microseconds), as
the drive current from the preceding stage is either at 180 for the off
EMITIER
r E state, or in excess of 186 for the on state. The transition is usually

l'~
SASE + hastened by built-in positive feedback or hysteresis, which also
- (A) PNP schematic
prevents "hang up" and possible destruction in the high dissipation
~
(active) region caused by the slow transition of an input signal.
COLLECTOR
~ IC

RL
(ALT)
SATURATION IS7 BASE
REGION CURRENTI B

ON _
I IB6

________
B5
P STATE

B 5,}
_____________ IB4
N
~0:
(B) PNP structure
____Afo,>; ---------
0: "/~ ______________ IS3
P ::J
o ,'--------1''''<;).0--
0:

~
'l-( I
C ______________ ()AfO(~- _____ -- - -- --- - -- --- B2

o <.<' I
o -----------------~.J ------------------ B1

RL II~------------------~,B--------ISO
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE VCE
--'----~~CUT OFF
1 REGION

COLLECTOR
~ IC OFF

J~
STATE

BASE + (C) NPN schematic

IB Fig. 3 Transistor voltage-current characteristic curves.

EMITIER

r E

RL
(ALT) The ratio of base current to collector current is the gain or amplifica-
tion factor of the transistor:

S In DC SSRs the degree of amplification is directly related to the

P (D) NPN structure
small available photocoupler current. As a result, the higher the out-
N
put current rating, the more stages of gain are required. As long as
polarity is observed, the load can be switched in series with either
of the relay output terminals, as is the case for AC SSRs. This is true
Fig. 2 PNP and NPN transistor types. for any two terminal isolated switching device. However, there are

c® Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toli free) IPAGEl 151

three terminal DC output configurations where the load side of the To maximize signal gain with two-terminal outputs, the output
power supply is connected to a separate terminal on the SSR, as transistor and its driver are usually wired in a Darlington or a
shown in Fig. 4. The purpose of the third terminal may be to provide complementary gain compounding configuration (Fig. 5) where the
entry for additional internal power, or full base drive in order to amplification factor is approximately the product of the two stages.
saturate the output transistor and achieve a lower voltage drop In either case, the output forward voltage drop is in the region of 1 .2
(0.2 volt). The load is then dedicated to one terminal of the relay volt DC, which is similar to AC SSRs and considered acceptable for
output, while the other is common to both drive and load circuits. most applications. Since any number of alternating PNP/NPN
The output transistor type, shown in what is described as the stages can be added to increase gain with no increase in voltage
common-emitter configuration, also becomes a consideration - drop, the complementary output of Fig. 58 is preferred. Where the
PNP for a ground referenced load (Fig. 4A), and NPN for a positive lower voltage drop is required, the only alternatives are the
reference load (Fig. 48). The transistor types could be reversed and previously described three-terminal outputs of Fig. 4, or by similarly
used in the common-collector (emitter-follower) mode, but would adding an external transistor and driving it in the saturating mode.
defeat the purpose of achieving the lower (saturating) voltage drop. This technique can also be used to increase current or voltage
switching capability in applications where no suitable SSR exist.
The external transistor can, of course, be added for current gain in
the two-terminal gain compounding mode; however, it will augment
the existing 1.2 volt DC drop of the SSR by about another 0.6 volt.

(A) PNP with ground (-) referenced load In summation, the more common two-terminal output has the
higher voltage drop of approximately 1.2 volts, but it provides the
load flexibility of a true relay. The three-terminal output on the other
hand, even with input/output isolation, polarizes the load with
respect to the common power supply terminal, but it has the
advantage of lower voltage drop (0.2 volt) and, in some cases,
lower off state leakage current.

AC Switches
(8) NPN with positive (+) referenced load The most commonly used output devices in AC SSRs are Silicon
+ Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) and Triacs, generally known as
thyristors (so named because of their similarity to the gas discharge
thyratrons of the vacuum tube era). Thyristors are a family of semi-
conductor switches whose bistable state depends on regenerative
feedback within a basic four-layer PNPN structure. Their attractive-
Fig. 4 Three-terminal, DC output, common emitier configurations.
ness for SSR use lies in their ability to switch high power loads, with
practical values up to 120 amperes and high AC line voltages, up to
480 volts RMS, with less than 50 mA of gate drive. In addition, they
can withstand one-cycle peak-curmnt surges in excess of ten times
their steady-state ratings.

± - (A) NPN Darlington output

J
ANODF

"(0.

GATE

(6) CO:llplementmy output

Cf,THOOE

Fig. 6 7vvG-tmnsistor analogy of SCR operation

The SCR IS a three-terminal unidimctional device that blocks current

in both directions in its off state, and performs much like a mctifier
Fig. 5 Two-iem7l1)a/, gain compounding DC output conflguralions. in its on state, thus a "controlled" rectifiel-. The SCR is best illustrated

152 \PAGE \ Tecl1 Support 1 877 702 7700 (toll free)

by the two-transistor analogy shown in Fig 6. While the transistor The triac is a three-terminal bidirectional device that blocks current
can be used as an On/Off switch, it is essentially a continuously in its off state; but, unlike an SSR, the triac conducts in either
variable current device where the collector-emitter current flow is direction when triggered on by a single gate signal. As the
controlled by a small, but proportional, amount of base-emitter schematic symbol implies (Fig. 8A) the triac is a true AC switch. Its
current. The SCR, on the other hand, has only two states, on or off. structure (Fig. 8B) is essentially that of an inverse parallel pair of
Once it is triggered on by a small briefly applied gate signal, it PNPN switches integrated into one device. Though the power
cannot be turned off by its gate. Only with a reversal or reduction of terminals appear symmetrical, they are designated MT1 and MT2 for
anode to cathode voltage and current below a critical level will the measurement purposes. The triac gate is associated with the MT1
SCR revert to its blocking off state. terminal similar to the gate-cathode relationship of the SCR. Apart
from the uniqueness of a single gate controlling oppositely polarized
The regenerative (latching) characteristic of the thyristor provides its
switches with a common signal, the switching characteristics can
high current and surge capability, but it is also responsible for the
be likened to those of a pair of SCRs, as can be seen from the
thyristor's sensitivity to sharply rising voltages, a less desirable char-
voltage current characteristic of Fig. 8C. Even though the two
acteristic known as dv/dt, or rate effect. This phenomenon causes
switches are combined into one device, they still exhibit individual
inadvertent turn-on, without the benefit of a gate signal. The capacitor
characteristics, such as different breakdown voltages, holding
shown in A of Fig. 6 represents the internal SCR capacitance through
currents, and trigger levels.
which a rising "anode" voltage can inject a tum-on signal into the gate,
resulting in a dv/dt turn-on. In a SSR, the built-in snubber (RC) Triacs do have a limitation compared with a pair of SCRs in that the
network, which limits the rate of rise of the applied voltage, largely commutating dv/dt (the dv/dt applied to the switch at turn-off) can
controls this effect. The rate above which tum-on can occur, usually be as low as 5V/[tS. For a switch consisting of a pair of SCRs,
specified in the catalogue as minimum dv/dt, is expressed in terms of dv/dt capability at turn-off is the critical dv/dt rating, 500V/[tS, so a
volts per microsecond, typically 500 volts per microsecond. The 100 times improvement over a triac.

Jf
schematic symbol for the SCR and a typical SCR structure are shown
in Figs. 7A and B. The structure represents a conventional "edge" or MAIN
ERMINAL2
"center" gate fired device commonly used in SSRs.
(A) Schematic symbol
ANODE GATE

MAIN
TERMINAL 1
(A) Schematic symbol

CATHODE

N (8) Parallel PNPN structures

N
(B) PNPN structure

BREAKOVER

ON
OFF
STATE
(BLOCKING)
7 TAGE

~
/STATE

HOLDING BREAKOVER
REVERSE
BLOCKING
VOLTAGE
/
CURRENT VOLTAGE
/ BREAKLR- - - - -~~~~~71 OFF
STATE
(BLOCKING)
VOLTAGE CURRENT

~)====~\~~ V
ON/
STATE

~
~B~~~~~~R
GATE OFF
TRIGGERED STATE (C) Voltage-current characteristic
VOLTAGE ON (BLOCKING)
Fig. 8 Bidirectional thyristor (triac).
(C) Voltage-current characteristic

Fig. 7 Undirectional thyristor (SGR).

C® Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) IPAGEl 153

SSR Operation favored as being more reliable and fail safe, since two or more
components would have to fail to create an unsafe situation. In the
In a bid to increase the understanding of SSRs, an SSR Operational circuit of Fig. 10A, a single diode breakdown would place a dead
description is included. It has to be said that an in-depth understand- short across the incoming line, thus creating a possible heat hazard.
ing of the intemal circuitry of an SSR and how it functions are not in
themselves a prerequisite to the use of SSR in many applications.

Most SSRs in the higher current ranges are offered with either AC or
DC control options. Indeed many have some form of current limiting
at their input in order to provide a practical operating voltage range. AC (A) Two-diode input

DC Inputs
CONTROL

-
Figs. 9A and B illustrate two typical DC input circuits for controlling
current through the photocoupler LED. The low end of the input
range is tailored to provide the minimum input current required to
operate the SSR, at the specified turn-on (must on) voltage
(typically 3 volts DC). The high end of the range is dictated by
dissipation in the current limiting component (typically 32 Vdc).
AC
CONTROL
-
- (B) Bridge input

+Q---~0A-------.

PROTECTIVE
DIODE
(PARALLEL) Fig. 10 Typical AC input circuits.
~
DC
(A) Dropping resistor

-
CONTROL

Either of the AC input circuits in Fig. i0A is also capable of operat-

ing from a DC source and, therefore, might be considered as
AC-DC; however, SSR inputs are rarely characterized in that way.
The circuit of Fig. 10B should operate with a DC control range
+ Q----.!I----f--,
similar to that of the AC (RMS) source. On the other hand, the
\
PROTECTIVE
circuit of Fig. i0A might have dissipation problems with the input
DC DIODE resistors, since they would no longer operate at a 50% duty cycle.

-
CONTROL (SERIES)
(8) Constant-current circuit In both cases, the SSR would have the uniqueness of operating
from a DC signal of either polarity.

Well designed AC input-output SSRs can operate from separate

power sources operating at different frequencies, as long as they
Fig. 9 Typical DC input circuits.
are both within the specified limits of voltage, frequency and isola-
tion. Line frequency for both input and output is typically specified
As a precaution against inadvertent voltage reversal, a series or
as 47 to 63 hertz, the upper limit of which is not critical for the input
inverse parallel diode is usually included in the input circuit. This
control power since the input is rectified and filtered. However, the
protection prevents damage to the photocoupler LED and possibly
upper frequency limit for an output is less flexible, especially for a
the constant-current device. The series diode permits reversal up
triac, which has definite frequency limitations, related to its ability to
to the PIV rating of the diode with negligible reverse current flow.
commutate off. An SCR output pair is capable of operating at much
With an inverse parallel diode, the reverse protection is limited
higher frequencies. However, because of circuit time constraints in
by dissipation in the dropping resistor, so brief voltage transients
the drive circuitry, other SSR parameters become the limiting
of a higher magnitude will not damage the diode or LED. However,
factors (e.g. the zero switching window may be extended and/or
the series diode is favored because it also raises the level of voltage
tum-on delayed each half cycle with eventual lock-on or lockout).
noise immunity by a value equal to its forward voltage drop (0.6 V
approx.)

The Coupler
AC Inputs
DC voltage is generally used to drive the coupling system regard-
AC inputs models are usually suitable for both 120 and 240 Vac line
less of the type. Even with transformer coupling, DC is used to drive
voltages, with a typical operating range of 90 to 280 Vac and 60 K
an oscillator, which in tum converts the DC to AC.
ohm input impedance. Full wave rectification is used, followed by
capacitive filtering and dropping resistors, as shown in Figs. 10A and Optical coupling is by far the most common means of achieving
B. While both circuits work equally well, the circuit in Fig. 10B is input-output isolation. With this method, the input element is

154 [PAGE [ C® Tech Support [1 877 702 7700 (toll free)

generally a light emitting diode (LED) which converts the input DCSSR
control power into infrared light energy. This light is collected by a The circuit of Fig. 11 is an example of a high current DC bipolar
phototransistor or photo-SCR on the other side of the isolation gap transistor SSR incorporating hysteresis. The input control can be
and converted back into electrical energy. DC or rectified and filtered AC. R1 is a current limiting resistor to
protect the LED in the photocoupler, and CR1 provides reverse
The forward voltage drop of the LED is in the region of 1.2 to 1.8
voltage protection. With no input applied, the phototransistor in the
volts at normal input currents of 2 - 20 mA. The LED reverse
optocoupler is in its off or high impedance state, and transistor 01
breakdown voltage is typically less than 3 volts and is usually
is permitted to saturate. In this condition, 02 through 05 are off,
protected by a series or (inverse) parallel standard diode, as
and no power is applied to the load.
previously described.
When a DC input above the threshold voltage of the LED is applied
to the optocoupler, the phototransistor turns on, biasing off 01.
This allows 02 through 05 to turn on, and power is applied to the
Hysteresis
load. Should the turn-on signal be applied in a slowly ramped
Due to the wide variation in photocoupler sensitivities, the minimum
fashion, 03 will apply a feedback voltage to the emitter of 01,
voltage to guarantee "off", which is also considered the SSR noise
which will enhance the turn-off command at its base. This will
immunity level, is well below the forward bias threshold of the LED,
speed up the turn-on process and thereby hasten the output
typically 1 volt. This threshold can be higher where an additional
transistor 05 through its high dissipation region.
diode is used in series with the LED. The 2 volt range between the
"off" and the maximum operate voltage is an indeterminate state Unlike an AC SSR which has a latching function, current continues
and not largely influenced by hysteresis as in the case for the to flow in the drive circuit of a DC SSR, holding it on until the input
pickup and dropout of an EMR. The transition is generally made signal is removed. The on state voltage is similar to that of an AC
rapidly in either direction, on or off, over a very narrow band, SSR, 0.8 volt to 1.6 volts, which gives rise to most of the package
probably less than 0.1 volt, unless hysteresis is deliberately built in. dissipation; therefore, heat sinking requirements are also similar.

Hysteresis occurs where the input voltage required to sustain the The turn-off process is the reverse of the turn-on (Fig. 11). If the
output on state is reduced once the transition is made, lowering the turn-off signal is slowly ramped down, tile removal of the feedback
turn-off voltage accordingly. Likewise, once the output returns to voltage from 03 will enhance the turn-on command at the base of
the off state, the input turn-on voltage is raised back to its initial 01. This will speed up the transition to off, again preventing 05
level. The effect is to speed up the transition and separate the from hesitating in the high dissipation region.
"pickup" and "dropout" control points. In doing so, any adverse
threshold effects caused by a slowly ramped on control signal TURN-ON
SIGNAL TURN-OFF
are minimized. SIGNAL
ACTUAL
TURN-ON
The hysteresis characteristic is not generally required in most SSR ,~ __ ACTUAL
TURN-OFF
applications where the thyristors in AC relays have an inherent
ACSSR
regenerative action of their own, and the control signals are derived TERMINALS
OUTPUT
from logic with clearly defined states, and rapid transition times,
such as TTL. It would be of value, however, in high current, bipolar ON

transistor, DC SSRs, where hesitation in the high dissipation,

lransitional region might be catastrophic to the output transistors,
DC CONTROL
VOLTAGE
J L~_
OFF

and the resultant "snap action" would reduce or eliminate

Fig. 12 Control and output terminal voltages for ZBm voltage tum-on relay
this possibility.

Zero Switching
Zero voltage turn-on (or zero crossing), as illustrated in Fig. 12, is
used in some AC SSRs to reduce electromagnetic interference and
high inrush currents during initial turn-on. Without zero crossing, the
OUTPUI load voltage is applied randomly to the load at any point in the line
voltage cycle. With the zero crossing feature, the line voltage is
cc:nnOL
switched to the load only when it is close to zero, typically specified
with a maximum value of ± 15 volts peak. Thus, a vel-y small
change in power results, and proportionally lower EMI levels are
generated. After zero crossing. the "Zero" switching voltage, which
defines the switching window limits, may also be expressed ill
Fig 11 Optically isolated DC SSR with hysteresis. terms of phase angle, or time. converted as follows:

rl) Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) IPAGEl 155
Voltage to phase angle (15 volts): When a DC input greater than the threshold voltage of the LED is
applied to the optocoupler, the phototransistor turns on. The values
Zsw. max
cj> = sin- 1 ------- of R2 and R3 are such that 01 will remain on if the instantaneous
Line V RMS (v2)
line voltage is above zero, thus holding the SSR off until the next
zero crossing. When the line voltage is close to zero in either a
15
=sin- 1 ---- positive or negative direction, the phototransistor holds 01 out of
120 x 1.41
saturation long enough for the pilot SCR to trigger, turning on the
triac. The triac will remain on, being retriggered each half cycle, until
the input control is removed and the AC line current goes through
or
zero. The result is a continuous sine wave applied to the load,
Phase angle to time (5°): except for a small discontinuity at each zero line crossing, caused
by the delay before turn-on. The snubber network of R7 and C1
}2 cyc. ms
is used to reduce the dv/dt applied at the output terminals of
T = }2 cyc. deg x cj>
the SSR.

8.3 The minimum delay for turn-on after zero crossing depends largely
= 180 x 5 on individual circuit design, while the zero detector circuit dictates
the maximum delay. The initial turn-on pOint can occur anywhere
= 0.23 ms within these allowable limits, referred to as the "window" or
the "notch". Subsequent turn-on points are generally lower and
Zero current turn-off is an inherent characteristic of the thyristors fairly consistent in amplitude, with circuit gain being the primary
used in AC SSRs, whether zero voltage is employed or not. Once controlling factor.
triggered, the thyristor stays on for the balance of the half cycle,
until switching load current drops below its "holding" level, where it Once the output thyristor turns on, the drive circuit is deprived of
turns off. For a resistive load, this point is also close to zero voltage, power by the lower forward voltage drop of the thyristor, and

as shown in Fig. 12. With an inductive load, the amount of stored current ceases to flow. This voltage, which is responsible for most
energy in the load is a function of the current flowing through it, of the package dissipation, varies from device to device and also as
which in this case is so small that inductive kickback is virtually a function of the current through it, ranging from 0.8 volt to 1.6 volt.
eliminated. This is probably the most desirable feature of the SSR, This is why the paralleling of two or more SSRs is difficult,
when compared to the destructive effects of "arcing" contacts necessitating the use of balancing resistors, etc. to preclude the

when switching inductive loads with an EMR. possibility of current "hogging".

ACSSR
The schematic of Fig. 13 illustrates a simplified optically coupled AC
SSR circuit, which includes the zero turn-on feature, implemented Solid State Relay Characteristics
by the inhibit action of 01 as described in the following. The input
Crydom manufactures an extensive range of Solid State Relays in
control to the SSR can be DC or rectified and filtered AC. R1 is a
various package styles, mounting options, terminal types and
current limiting resistor used to protect the LED portion of the
switching capability. We have endeavoured to make the selection of
optocoupler, and CR1 provides reverse voltage protection. With no
the correct SSR for the correct application as easy as possible.
input applied, the phototransistor in the optocoupler is in its off or
high impedance state and transistor 01 is permitted to saturate. In
Selecting the Ideal SSR
this condition, the pilot SCR is prevented from firing, thus the triac is
In a bid to specify the exact SSR for an application, it is important to
off and no power is applied to the load.
consider the input drive requirements, output voltage, load or output
current, isolation and installation requirement i.e. where is the SSR to
be used and how it should be mounted. In many instances the load
R2 R4 R5 R7 power will dictate whether the SSR is PCB, panel, or DIN rail
SCR mounted. In loads greater than 5 to 7 amps, a heat sink becomes
R1 necessary to remove heat from the SSR body. Certain
OUTPUT
designs incude integral heat sinks, while others have dissipation
CONTROL characteristics that are inherently within the product.

o---+CR.-'_ I
OPTICAL
C1
General Parameters
COUPLER The following parameters relate to isolation between parts of the
SSR, namely input to output of the SSR, input to the outer case of
Fig. 13 Optically isolated AC SSR with lero crossing detector. the SSR, and the output to the outer case of the SSR.

1561 PAGEl C® Tech Support 11 8777027700 (toll free)

Dielectric Strength Also referred to as "isolation voltage". Expressed Minimum Load Current The minimum load current required by the
as a voltage (RMS) at 50/60 hertz, that the isolated sections SSR to perform as specified. Sometimes combined with the
of the SSR can withstand without breakdown. Considered a maximum load current and given as the "operating current range".
minimum value.
Transient Overvoltage The maximum allowable excursion of the
Insulation Resistance The minimum resistive value (ohms) usually applied voltage that an SSR can withstand without damage or
measured at 500 volts DC between the isolated sections of malfunction while maintaining its off state. Transients in excess of
the SSR. this value may turn on the SSR nondestructively if current condi-
tions are met. The transient period, while not generally specified,
Maximum Capacitance Input to Output Maximum value of capaci-
can be in the order of several seconds, limited by dissipation in
tive coupling between control and power output terminals.
internal bias networks or by capacitor ratings.
Ambient Temperature Range The surrounding air temperature
Maximum Surge Current (non-repetitive) The maximum allowable
limits, usually given for both operating and storage conditions.
momentary current flow for a specified time duration, typically one
The maximum operating temperature may require close
line cycle (16.6 milliseconds) for AC. Usually specified as a peak
consideration by the thermal dictates of heat dissipation and the
value and provided with current versus time curves. Relay control
possible requirement of a heat sink.
may be lost during, and immediately following, the surge.

Input Parameters Maximum Overcurrent (non-repetitive) Similar to the above, but

Control Voltage Range The range of voltages which, when applied typically expressed as a RMS value for one-second duration.
across the input terminals, will maintain an "on" condition across
Maximum On State Voltage Drop The maximum (peak) voltage
the output terminals. A negative voltage is stated separately as
that appears across the SSR output terminals at full rate load
"Max Reverse Voltage".
current. Not to be confused with "Zero Voltage Turn-On" or "Peak
Maximum Turn-On Voltage The voltage applied to the input at or Repetitive Turn-On", or used to calculate power diSSipation.
above which the output is guaranteed to be in the on state. Also
Maximum I~ Maximum non-repetitive pulse-current capability of
known as "must operate" or "pickup".
the SSR; used for fuse selection. Expressed as "ampere squared
Minimum Turn-Off Voltage The voltage applied to the input at or seconds" (A2 s) with a stated pulse width, typically between 1 and
below which the output is guaranteed to be in the off state. Also, 8.3 milliseconds.
known as "must release" or "dropout", it is often considered to be
Thermal Resistance, Junction to Case (R SJc ) Expressed as
the SSR "noise immunity" level.
"degrees celsius per watt" (DC/W) , this value defines the temp-
Maximum Input Current The maximum current drain on the driving erature gradient between the output semiconductor junction (TJ)
source, usually specified at a nominal point within the control voltage and the SSR case (Tel for any given power dissipation. RSJC is
range (the output is assumed to be in the on state unless "normally necessary for calculating heat sink values and allowable current
closed"). This defines the input power requirements, which can also and temperature limits.
be given in terms of input impedance at a given voltage.
Power Dissipation (at Rated Current) The maximum average
Minimum Input Impedance Minimum impedance at a given volt- power dissipation (watts) resulting primarily from the effective
age which defines input power requirements, as an alternative to, or voltage drop (power loss) in the output semiconductor. Sometimes
in addition to, input current. provided in the form of curves over the current range.

Maximum Turn-On TIme The maximum time between the applica- Maximum Zero Voltage Turn-On The maximum (peak) off state
tion of a turn-on control signal and the transition of the output voltage that appears across the output terminals immediately prior
device to its fully conducting (on) state. to initial turn-on, following the application of a turn-on control Signal.
Also referred to as the "notch" which defines the limits of the
Maximum Turn-Off Time The maximum time between the removal
permissible turn-on window.
of the turn-on control signal and the transition of the output device
to its blocking (off) state. Maximum Peak Repetitive Turn-On Voltage The maximum (peak)
off state voltage that appears across the output terminals
Output Parameters immediately prior to turn-on at each subsequent half cycle following
Operating Voltage Range The range of voltage applied to the the initial half cycle, with a turn-on control signal applied. This
output, over which an SSR will continuously block or switch and parameter applies equally to SSRs with or without the "zero turn-
otherwise perform as specified. Line frequency is either included or on" feature.
stated separately (AG).
Maximum Off State Leakage Current The maximum (RMS) off
Maximum Load Current The maximum steady-state load current state leakage current conducted through output terminals, with no
capability of an SSR, which may be further restricted by the thermal turn-on control Signal applied. Usually specified at maximum rated
dictates of heat sink and ambient temperature conditions. voltage over the operating temperature range.

C® Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) IPAGEl 157

Minimum Off State dv/dt (Static) The rate of rise of applied volt- +3.5 V MIN

age across the output terminals that the SSR (AC) can withstand
without turning on in the absence of a turn-on control signal.
Usually expressed as a minimum value at maximum rated voltage in
terms of "volts per microsecond" (V/[ts).

Mechanical Characteristics (A) PNP transistor

Weight Is given in oz. and in gramms.
+ Of-
::J
Encapsulation Specifies the material used as the SSR encapsulant. SSR "-
f-
::J
0°
Product Dimensions Are contained within the lines included in
each product section.

+3.5 V MIN

Driving the SSR

To activate an SSR output, a voltage greater than that specified for + o f-
::J
SSR "-
maximum turn-on is applied to the input (3 volt DC typical). The off to
0°
state occurs when zero or less than the minimum turn-off voltage is
applied (1 volt DC typical). For an AC input type, the typical values (8) NPN transistor

would be 90 volts RMS for on, and 10 volts RMS for off. For an
SSR deSignated as normally closed or form B, the previous on-off NPN ~
conditions would be reversed. Generally, normally open is the ~
accepted, but undesignated, standard for the SSR.

DC is considered as being a steady-state DC voltage of one

polarity, and AC is a reasonably well shaped sinusoidal waveform.
+4.5 V MIN

Due to consideration of input to output isolation, the switch con-

trolling the input to an SSR can be placed in series with either of the
+ Of-
two input terminals, assuming polarity is observed (DC). The same SINK
::J
"-
SSR f-
MODE ::J
flexibility applies to the output side, where the load may also be 0°
placed in series with either output terminal. There are a few spe-
cialized types, usually with more than two input or output terminals, Ie) TIL gate

that have dedicated functions (i.e. Vcc logic input and common).

The activating signal may be derived from mechanical contacts or

solid state devices such as those shown in Fig. 14. The minimum
WRONG
supply voltage through these contacts may be equal to the SSR
turn-on voltage (3 volts DC typical), whereas the positively or neg-
atively referenced transistors require a minimum supply voltage a few Fig. 14 SSR cirive met/locis.
tenths of a volt above the specified turn-on threshold, say 3.5 volts
DC. This is because of their approximate 0.2-0.4 volt on state
voltage drop when driven in the grounded emitter (saturating) mode.

TTL Drive Methods

A standard TIL gate can drive most SSRs with its 16 mA sink
capability, Fig. 14C. However, very few SSRs can be driven reliably
with the gates' available source current of only 400 microamperes.
Also, the SSR minimum voltage threshold I'8quirements are not met
in the source mode (i.e. gate output in the positive leg of the SSR).

The relationship of the TIL gate to an SSR is illustrated schemati-

SSf"
cally in Fig. 15. In this configuration the SSR supply voltage and the
gate Vcc should be common and comply with the TIL specified
limits of say 5 volts ± 1OSlo. It can be seen that with a positively
referenced SSR and the gate at logical (0), Q2 is operating much like Fig. 15 Typical circuit of a TTL gate ciriving an SSR.

1581 PAGE 1 C(() Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free)
a discrete NPN transistor in the grounded-emitter saturated state. Integrated circuits with open collector outputs are also commonly
In this mode the gate can sink up to 16 mA with a maximum 0.4 used to drive SSRs, as in Fig. 17. The open collector IC has an
volt drop. Subtracting 0.4 volt from the worst case Vcc of 4.5 volts, output transistor without an active (transistor) or passive (resistor)
a minimum of 4.1 volts will appear across the SSR input terminals, pull-up, and generally has enough power to drive an SSR directly.
which is sufficient to turn on most SSRs. For different supply Open collector outputs can also be logically ORed like discretes, so
voltage tolerances, the values would be adjusted accordingly. that the SSR may be controlled by anyone of the many outputs.
Furthermore, the SSR supply voltage does not have to be the same
With a negatively referenced SSR and the gate at logical (1), 01
as the IC Vcc' provided that one side is common, and the transistor
conducts, but does not saturate, since it is operating as an emitter
and SSR maximum voltages and currents are not exceeded.
follower (common collector). In this mode the gate can source up to
400 microamps; however, the accumulated voltage drops are:

R1(IRDROP) + 01 vBE + CR1 vF VCC

+=-~----~----,
.-------------------

The sum of these values subtracted from the worst case Vcc results i~
: ~
+
SSR
0 ~
a.

in a minimum output voltage specified as 2.4 volts, which is 0.6 volt

--+-~--~-~---~_T--_+~
' _____ H
oB
____________ _

below the SSR turn-on threshold (assuming a 3 volt turn-on).

+
Although some SSRs may operate satisfactorily in this mode, it is
not recommended that this be done. Both the available current and
the minimum voltage are considered inadequate for the typical
optically isolated SSR.

It should be noted that the 2.4 volt gate output in the logical 1 state
relates only to a negatively referenced load. It does not represent a Fig. 17 Open collector IC outputs driving SSR in logically ORed configuration.
voltage source to a positively referenced load (SSR) , where it would
appear to be greater than the off state voltage. Referring again to Fig.
15, 02 would be off and CR1 is reverse biased, thus presenting SSRs do not generally require pull-up or shunt resistors for noise
essentially an open circuit with virtually zero potential across the SSR. reduction or any other functional reason. An open input, if not
assigned to a particular logic level, produces an open or off state in
the output (unless otherwise designated). Input lines would have to
1500 OHM MINIMUM
VDD -------T-------------, INPUT IMPEDENCE be extremely long and through noisy environments before noise of
AT5V

3.2mA
:----------/--------- any significance would appear at the input terminals to cause the
CMOS
MAX.
BUFFERED
GATE
SSR to change state.

Some IC devices have "three state" (tristate) outputs. These have

the normal high and low states as described for standard TTL, plus

i
-- -- an additional high impedance state activated by an enable signal. In
(1) (2.5 V SOURCE)
the high impedance state, no source or sink current flows,

I I
1
(0) 0.4 V SINK
appearing as an open input to a driven SSR. The IC is essentially
out of the circuit, thus permitting similar devices to be paralleled

·1
SINK SOURCE
(0) (1)
and enabled, as desired, without interacting with each other. For
example, in this configuration a number of ORed driver stages can
be individually polled as to their logic states by a sequentially
applied enable Signal. Only the drivers with outputs at logical 0
would activate the SSR.
Fig. 16 Buffered CMOS gate driving a high input impedance SSR.

Leakage from the Drive Source

Ie and Other Drive Sources The off state leakage current in the driving semiconductors shown
Most CMOS and NMOS logic families will not directly interface with in Figs. 14 to 17 is significant, just a few microamperes, which
SSRs, except for a few specially designed types. However, a CMOS could not possibly turn on the SSRs. However, the off state (output)
buffered gate can reliably drive an SSR that has low input power leakage current of any packaged solid state driving device (e.g.
requirements (Le. > 1500 ohms at 5 volts) and is also driven in the temperature controller, etc.) should first be checked for compatibility
sink mode the same as TTL. Fig. 16 shows 1/6 of 4049 (inverting) with the SSR. One method is to multiply the maximum leakage
or a 4050 (non-inverting) CMOS hex buffer driving such an SSR current (amps) by the maximum input impedance (ohms) of the
with a common 5 volt supply. CMOS can, of course, operate at SSR. This should result in a voltage that is less than the specified
higher voltages, but care must be taken not to overstress the gate turn-off voltage. If it is not, a resistive shunt across the SSR input
with excessive dissipation. may be required.

C© Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) 1 PAGE 1 159

Thermal Considerations say 12 watts for a 10 amp SSR, assuming a 1.2 volt effective (not
actual) voltage drop across the output semiconductor. The power

One of the major considerations when using a SSR, which cannot be dissipation (P watts) is determined by multiplying the effective

stressed too strongly, is that an effective method of removing heat from voltage drop (E DROP) by the load current (I LOAD )'

the SSR package must be employed. The most common method is to Assuming a thermal resistance from junction to case (R OJc) of, say,
employ a heat sink. SSRs have a relatively high "contact" dissipation, in 1.3°CIW and inserting the above typical values into the equation,
excess of 1 watt per amp. solutions can be found for unknown parameters, such as maximum
load current, maximum operating temperature, and the appropriate
NO HEAT SINK
heat sink thermal resistance. Where two of these parameters are
known, the third can be found as shown in the following examples:

OUTPUT
(a) To determine the maximum allowable ambient temperature,
SEMICONDUCTOR AMBIENT
(JUNCTION
-------10- HEAT FLOW (AIR TEMPERATURE) for 1°CIW heat sink and 10 amp load (12 watts) with a
TEMPERATURE)
WITH HEAT SINK
maximum allowable T3 of 100°C:

8-YV\r@-YV\r(0-YV\r0)
R"JC .~ R"c, t~ R""
= 12 (1.3 + 0.1 + 1.0)
CASE' ' .~~ HEAT SINK
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
= 28.8

hence,
Fig. 18 A simplified thermal model.
TA =TJ -28.8

With loads of less than 5 amps, cooling by free flowing air or forced = 100 - 28.8
air current around the SSR is usually sufficient. At higher currents it
= 71.2°C
will become necessary to make sure the radiating surface is in good
contact with a heat sink. Essentially this involves mounting the (b) To determine required heat sink thermal resistance,
baseplate of the SSR onto a good heat conductor, usually aluminum; for 71.2°C maximum ambient temperature and a
good thermal transfer between the SSR and the heat sink can be 10 amp load (12 watts):
achieved with thermal grease or heat sink compound. Using this
technique, the SSR case to heat sink thermal resistance (Rocs) is
reduced to a negligible value of O.1°CIW (celsius per watt) or less.
This is usually presumed and included in the thermal data. The sim-
plified thermal model in Fig. 18 indicates the basic elements to be 100 - 71.2
- (1.3 + 0.1)
considered in the thermal design. The values that are determinable by 12
the user are the case to heat sink interface (R ocs )' as previously
mentioned, and the heat sink to ambient interface (ROSA)' = 1°CIW

Thermal Calculations (c) To determine maximum load current, for 1°CIW heat sink
Fig. 18 illustrates the thermal relationships between the output and 71.2DC ambient temperature:
semiconductor junction and the surrounding ambient. T,I - TA is the
T J - TA
temperature gradient or drop from junction to ambient, which is the P=--------
sum of the thermal resistances multiplied by the junction power + Rues + RUSA
dissipation (P watts). Hence:
100 71.2
1.3+0.1+1.0

Where = 12 watts
T ,J
Junction temperature, c'C
hence,
Ambient temperature, DC
Power dissipation X watts P
Thermal resistance, junction to case °C/W
Thermal resistance. case to sink, °C/W
Thermal resistance, sink to ambient, °C/W 12
1.2
To use the equation, the maximum junction tempemture must be
known, typically 125"C, together' with the actual power dissipation, = 10 amperes

/'-"J'\

160 IPAGEl r(/,I-I1I-ec-h-S-up-po-rt-'11 877 702 7700 (toll free)

Regardless of whether the SSR is used on a heat sink or the case is (n To determine required thermal resistance (RsJcl, for 84.4°C
cooled by other means, it is possible to confirm proper operating case temperature and 10 amp load (12 watts):
conditions by making a direct base plate temperature measurement
when certain parameters are known. The same basic equation is
used except that base plate temperature (Tc) is substituted for
ambient temperature (TA) and Rscs and RSSA are deleted. The
temperature gradient now becomes TJ - Tc that is the thermal 100 - 84.4
resistance (RsJcl multiplied by the junction power dissipation 12
(P watts). Hence:

Parameter relationships are similar in that solutions can be found for In examples (a) through (c) SSR operating conditions are deter-
maximum allowable case temperature, maximum load current, and mined as they relate to ambient air temperature using a heat sink.
required junction to case (RsJcl thermal resistance. Again, where Similarly, conditions can be determined for an SSR operating in free
two parameters are known, the third can be found as shown in the air without a heat sink, provided that a value is given for the
following examples (using previous values): radiating characteristics of the package (R SCA)' This value is rarely
given and when it is, it is more commonly combined with (RsJcl and
stated as (R SJA)' The equation would appear as follows:
(d) To determine maximum allowable case temperature,
for RSJC = 1 .3°C/W and 10 amp load (12 watts):

TJ - Tc = P (R SJc )

= 12 x 1.3 Or
= 15.6

hence,
Where
Tc = TJ -15.6 RSCA = Thermal resistance, case to ambient, °C/W
=100-15.6 RSJA = Thermal resistance, junction to ambient, °C/W

The equation can be used to calculate maximum load current and

(e) To determine maximum load current, for RSJC = 1 .3°C/W and maximum ambient temperature as before. However, the resultant
84.4°C case temperature: values are inclined to be less precise due to the many variables that
affect the case to air relationship (i.e., positioning, mounting,
P= stacking, air movement, etc).

Generally, free air performance is associated with PCB or plug-in

100 - 84.4 SSRs of 5 amps or less, which have no metallic base to measure.
1.3 The question is often raised as to where the air temperature is
measured. There is no clear-cut answer for this. Measurement is
= 12 watts made more difficult when the SSRs are closely stacked, each
creating a false environment for its neighbour. One suggested
hence,
approach is to place a temperature probe or thermocouple in the
P horizontal plane approximately 1 inch away from the subject SSR.
ILOAD=-E--
DROP This technique is reasonably accurate and permits repeatability.

12
1.2

= 10 amperes
Ratings
The free air performance of lower powered SSRs is usually defined
in the catalogue by means of a single derating curve, current versus
ambient temperature based on the foregoing formulas, which is
adequate for most situations.

c® Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) 1 PAGEl 161

 As a general rule, a heat sink with the proportions of the 2 inch
length of extrusion (curve(a)) is suitable for SSRs rated up to 10
amps, while the 4 inch length (curve (b)) will serve SSRs rated up to
20 amps. For power SSRs with ratings greater than 20 amps, a
heavy duty heat sink of the type shown in Fig. 22 becomes
100
necessary. The performance of a 5.5 inch length of this extrusion
105
would approximate the characteristics shown in Fig. 23.
-~--j/-c--!---i -----,----;-i-- r-+-+--r--+----i-_----"~~=__L--1'1O

10 15 20 25/0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-,--
LOAD CURRENT (ARMS) MAX AMBIENT TEMPERATURE rC)

2.62
Fig. 19 Thermal derating curves (25 A SSR).
INCHES

Heat Sinking 4.75----

INCHES
Under worst case conditions the SSR case temperature should not
exceed the maximum allowable shown in the right hand vertical
Fig. 22 An end view of a typical heavy duty aluminum heat sink extrusion.
scales of Fig.19.

A typical finned section of extruded aluminum heat sink material is

shown in outline form in Fig 20. A 2 inch length of this material 100

~
would approximate the same thermal characteristics as curve (a) in
~ 80
m
Fig. 21, likewise, a 4 inch length would approximate curve (b). This :2
<{

~
is assuming the heat sink is positioned with the fins in the vertical 0 60
~
plane, with an unimpeded air flow. ill
W
5'
~ 40

~
'" 20

'"
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

POWER DISSIPATED (WAnS)

0.15 Fig. 23 Typical free-moving air characteristics of a heavy duty heat sink,
INCH
temperature rise versus power dissipated.

Not all heat sink manufacturers show their characteristics in terms of

degrees C per watt (OC/W); some show them as a temperature rise
above ambient, as shown in Fig. 23. In this case, a value for RUSA is
found by dividing power dissipation (watts) into the temperature rise
Fig. 20 TypicalligtJt duly aluminum heat sink extrusion (end view).
(DC). For example, taking the 50 watt point on the dissipation scale,
the free air curve would indicate a 40 degree rise. Hence:

3.0

~ 2.5
\-' 40
"'\2,
'S
w
50
0
Z

~ 2.0

iiia: = 0.56°CNV
<i
:2
a:
ill 1.5
I
r- In many applications, the SSR is mounted to a panel or base plate,
wllich may also be more than adequate as a heat sink. By ensuring
1.0 '-----~-~-----~----'--~ flatness, using thermal compound. and removing paint to maximize
10 15 20 25 30 35
DISSIPATION [WADS) effectiveness, a base plate (SSR) temperature measurement at
maximum ambient may be all that is necessary to confirm proper
Fig. 21 Typk;al heat sink characteristics. operation as previously mentioned.

162 [PAGE[ Tech Support 1 877 702 7700 (toli free)

If an SSR installation does not provide an adequate heat sink, a It is generally derived from the peak surge (one cycle) output thyristor
selection is made from the wide variety of commercial heat sink rating as follows:
types that are available. Each configuration has its own unique
thermal characteristics and are usually well documented with
Where
manufacturers' performance curves and applications data.
Ipk peak surge current - (sinusoidal)
duration of surge (normally 8.3 I-tS)
(.0083 seconds in the formula)
Surge Ratings and High Inrush For example, for a 25 amp SSR with a 250 amp one-cycle surge
Current Loads rating, the value would be 260 amp-squared seconds.

Inductive loads
After improper heat sinking, surge current is one of the more
High inrush lamp and capacitive loads sometimes include a series
common causes of SSR failure. Overstress of this type can also
inductor such as a choke or transformer. This will tend to limit the
seriously impair the life of the SSR. Therefore, in a new application
initial inrush current, but the combination will primarily be seen by
it would be wise to carefully examine the surge characteristics of
the SSR as an inductive load. While most SSR loads, even lamps,
the load.
include some inductance, its effect with resistive loads is usually
There are very few completely surgeless SSR loads. Resistive loads, negligible. Only those loads that utilize magnetics to perform their
such as heating elements and incandescent lamps, can prove function, such as transformers and chokes, are likely to have any
problematic. Capacitive loads can also prove equally problematic significant influence on SSR operation.
because of their initial appearance as short circuits. High surge
The majority of SSRs will operate inductive loads with power factors
currents can occur while charging, limited only by circuit resistance.
as low as 0.3, especially if they are switching medium to high
Inductive loads, on the other hand, tend to impede high inrush
current loads relative to their rating. GG4?WHFKGGRF?FUGPGVDGD
When a load rating is close
Crydom relays are 100%
currents; in fact, inductance is often inserted into a circuit for the
for operation at 0.5 pf. When a load is so light that its rating is close
express purpose of limiting high fast rising peak currents (e.g. EMI
to the minimum current rating of the SSR, the off state leakage may
filters, chokes, etc.). However, inductive loads can give rise to high
become significant when compared to the load current. The
inrush currents.
leakage may have a deleterious effect on certain loads such as
Inductive loads have traditionally created more problems on turn-off small solenoids that fail to drop out, or motors that buzz or even
rather than turn-on due to stored energy and "back EMF". The continue to run. The solution is to reduce the load impedance by
inherent zero current turn-off characteristics of thyristors used in AC means of a shunt or parallel impedance, thus reducing this voltage
SSRs is most beneficial in this regard. below the drop out or off threshold of the load.

A saturating inductive load can also cause switching problems with

Surge Ratings
the SSR. The AC impedance of such a load is relatively high under
The highest surge current rating of an SSR is typically 10 times the
normal conditions. However, when saturation occurs the induc-
steady-state RMS value, and it is usually given as the maximum
tance falls to a very low value, resulting in a fall in impedance close
nonrepetitive peak current for one line cycle. It should be noted that
to that of the Copper resistance of the coil winding. This can cause
a surge of this magnitude is allowable only 100 times during the
several cycles of surge currents in excess of 30 times the steady-
SSR lifetime. The preceding cautionary notes would tend to reduce
state value, which may seriously affect the lifetime.
the attractiveness of the high surge capability (100%) of the AC
SSR; however, they apply only to the extreme limits where the SSR Transformer SWitching
should not be designed to operate anyway. When a reasonable Extremely high current surges are commonly associated with trans-
surge safety margin is used, conditions rapidly improve. formers, especially those with a penchant for saturation. The zero
voltage turn-on feature of standard SSRs can increase this
Generally, DC SSRs do not have an overcurrent surge capability,
possibility and might require that special precautions be taken.
since the output transistors (nonregenerative) are usually rated for
continuous operation at their maximum capacity. The tendency is At the instant turn-on, transformer current is essentially zero, with
for the DC SSR to cut off (culTent limit), thus impeding the flow of the highest peak usually occurring within a half cycle, depending on
excessive current However, the resultant over-dissipation may the line phase angle, load power factor, and magnetic state of the
destroy the relay if the surge IS prolonged. If overcurrent can'yin[1 core. When the SSR is energized at the ideal phase angle, as
capacity is required, as may be the case when designin[1 dictated by power factor, a maximum back EMF is generated that
fuse protection, the SSR could be over specified (have a hi[1her will tend to counter the magnetizing current, thereby reducing or
current capability). eliminating the surge.

To aid in the proper design of SSR fusing, an I:'t rating is usually However, when switched on at, or neal', zelo voltage, the back
given. This parameter expressed in ampere-squared seconds is EMF is reduced, allowing an increase in magnetizing current
useful since it can relate directly to the published fuse charactei'istics. that can be further enhanced by residual magnetism in the core,

[<l) Tecll Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) IpAGEI163

which almost always exists since ferromagnetic core material has a While soft start spreads the inrush current over many cycles, thus
natural tendency to remain magnetized at turn-off. reducing stress, it also prevents the occurrence of enormous
saturating currents. Due to its phase control nature, it can produce
If a random turn-on SSR is used to switch transformer loads, the
a brief burst of EMI noise during the ramp up period; possibly a
likelihood of transformer core saturation is greatly reduced.
small sacrifice for the added benefits.

Switching The inrush current characteristic of tungsten filament (incandescent)

Dynamic loads, such as motors and solenoids, etc., can create lamps is somewhat similar to the surge characteristic of the
special problems for SSRs, in addition to those discussed for thyristors used in AC SSR outputs, making them a good match.
passive inductors. High initial surge current is drawn because their The typical ten times steady-state ratings which apply to both
stationary impedance is usually very low. For example, after the parameters from a cold start allow many SSRs to switch lamps with
initial surge, a solenoid core will pull in and "seal" at a much lower current ratings close to their own steady-state ratings. Some lamps
steady-state current, possibly by dropping to less than 25%. With have even higher instantaneous inrush currents. This is rarely seen
motors, the change in current from stall to run can be even greater, in practice, since line and source impedances and filament
possibly dropping to less than 20%, depending on the type. inductance become significant at higher currents, all of which tend

As a motor rotor rotates, it develops a back EMF that reduces the to limit the peak current. Generally the ten times steady-state rating

flow of current. This same back EMF can also add to the applied is considered a safe number for lamps.

line voltage and create "overvoltage" conditions during turn-off.

Mechanical loads with a high starting torque or high inertia, such as
fans and flywheels, will, of course, prolong the start-up surge
Protective Measures
period, which should be taken into account when selecting the
driving SSR. When the mechanical load is unknown, as may be the
case with a power tool, worst case conditions should apply.
DRIVE
(A) SCR as output switch (dv/dt from
CIRCUIT
conducting to forward blocking)
One of the best surge reducing techniques is the soft start shown
with a typical waveform on an expanded scale in Fig. 24. With this
system, once the control signal is applied, the SSR is ramped on by
internal circuitry that advances the turn-on phase angle over several
APPLIED
half cycles. The slow transition to full line voltage virtually eliminates VOLTAGE ~,

seR \ , ,:' / COM~~~~TING

the problems associated with zero, random, peak, and integral
VOLTAGE i:=-::-:-":c='c==~~~ --0

cycle turn-on. This is also beneficial for lamps and capacitive loads ~O-N-~~I---O~N--~'~~~

and could be applied in most general applications.

SSR
OUTPUT

(A) Circuit

10UTPUT
TRIGGER PULSE

0-100rns
Fig. 25 Tum-off conditions for SeRs in full-wave bridge circuits switching
inductive loads.

100-200ms

200-300ms

(B) Voltage wavefolTIl

Fig. 24 Typical circuit configuration and voltage waveform of soft start, with phase angle
ramped on over 14 cycles.

1641 PAGEl [({) Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free)
Noise Susceptibility 28 Vdc 28 Vdc

Noise, or more properly defined as Electromagnetic Interference

(EMI), does not generally cause SSRs to fail catastrophically.
1N4005 i
Some of the techniques used to reduce noise in the coupler
1N4005 l
and drive circuits are also effective against false triggering 1N4753 ~

caused by voltage transients on the input lines. When a capacitor is

added, for example, the response time which is not critical for AC
SSRs may be lengthened, possibly from a few microseconds to
tenths of milliseconds. Due to the induced delay, voltage transients
or bursts of shorter duration are rejected, thus improving
noise immunity.
1'1N4753 1'1N4753
Most AC SSRs use thyristors in their drive and output circuits which,
due to their regenerative nature, can latch on for a whole half cycle
when triggered by a brief voltage transient, thus acting as a pulse
stretcher. In addition to responding to the amplitude of the transient,
115 Vac
a thyristor can also mistrigger when the rate of rise (dv/dt) of a
transient or applied voltage exceeds certain limits. Transient
suppressors are effective against the former, and the RC snubber
improves the tolerance of an SSR to the latter.

dv/dt (Rate Effect)

The expression dv/dt defines a rising voltage versus time expressed
in volts per microsecond (VhlS). When applied to an AC SSR
as "static" or "off state" dv/dt, it is a parameter that defines the
minimum dv/dt withstand capability of the SSR or, in other words,
the maximum allowable rate of rise of voltage across the output
terminals that will not turn on the SSR (typically 500 V/rJ.8).

Snubber
The internal RC network (snubber) used in AC SSRs is a major Fig. 26 Transient suppression techniques.
factor in transient voltage and dV/dt suppression. It deals effectively
with two facets of a voltage transient. Not only does the network
slow down the rate of rise as seen by the output thyristors
and sensitive drive circuits, but it also limits the amplitude to which it
can rise. Suppressors
When overvoltage tmnsients occur, another form of sUPPl'8ssion
While the typical internal snubber value and the typical dv/dt
may be required beyond the capabilities of the snubber. One
specification are adequate for most applications, they may not
popular technique is to add a clamping device across the SSR
prevent what is commonly referred to as the "blip" or "bleep"
terminals that will absorb the transient energy above a
problem which occurs during start-up. That is, when power is
predetermined level.
initially applied to the SSR/load combination usually by Ineans of a
mechanical switch, the resultant fast rising transient may Illistrigger Devices, such as zeners and MOVs, will conduct oilly at the pre-
the SSR and possibly "let through" a half cycle pulse. Fortunately, determined level and above, thereby sharing the transient with the
most loads are not troubled by this pulse. load. If it is unacceptable for the load to receive any transient energy,
Ule only solutions may be suppression of the transient source, or an
SSR with a blocking capability higher than the transient.

Fig. 26 illustrates typical methods of suppressing ti'ansients

across the SSR output "contacts", as well as suppression of
transients at the source. which call be the load itself for DC
inductive type loads.

[CO Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) I PAGEl 165
Diodes and Zeners The zener diode is the ideal choice for protecting low voltage DC
The diode shown across the load in A of Fig. 26 is the most effec- SSRs (less than 100 volts DC) used in parallel with the output. In
tive way of suppressing the possibly hundreds of volts of back EMF the forward current mode (reverse for the SSR), the zener diode
that can be generated by the coil at turn-off. The disadvantages of typically clamps as a single diode would at approximately one volt,
this method are the SSR is not protected from other transient thereby providing added reverse-voltage protection. When two
sources, and the dropout time of the load may be extended by zeners are used back-to-back (in series) with equal standoff volt-
several milliseconds. ages, they can be used to protect SSR outputs bidirectionally when
switching AC loads. At higher voltages (greater than 100 volts) AC
PEAK
PULSE or DC, economics versus performance may suggest another
CURRENT

I
transient protective device such as the MOV (metal oxide varistor)
+
being the most popular.
CLAMPING
VOLTAGE

VZ~ MOVs
FORWARD
CURRENT

f CLAMPING
VOLTAGE
I
LEAKAGE
CURRENT
For more hostile environments, the MOV can be used as follows:
across the incoming line to suppress external transients before they
can enter the system; across the load to suppress load generated
transients; or, more frequently, across the SSR to protect it from all
IA) Z81l8r diode V-I characteristic (B) MOV \}-I characteristic

transient sources. In the latter case, the MOV can be conveniently

Fig. 27 Comparison of zener diode and MOV characteristics. mounted to the same SSR output terminals as the load wiring. With
the impedance of the load in series with the MOV to limit current, a
The general rule in the selection of protective diodes and zeners is
30 joule unit is usually adequate for brief spikes and also small
that their peak nonrepetitive (pulse) current ratings (Fig. 27) should
enough to be supported by its own leads.
be equal to, or greater than, the minimum load current.
Conservative steady-state power ratings for these devices may be If a MOV is connected directly across the power line, the current
ascertained from the following equation: limiting impedance will only be that of the power generating source
plus the wiring. In order to absorb the possibility of high energy line
transients from such a low impedance source, the larger panel
mount (300 - 600 joule) variety of MOV may be required. The
greater expense of such a device might be justified in that
where suppression across the line is required in one place only.

IL = load current in DC amperes Individual MOV specifications should be consulted for precise

L = load inductance in henrys information regarding energy absorption, clamping properties and
physical size, since the relationships of these parameters will vary
t, = on/off repetition rate in seconds
from one manufacturer to the next.

Fuses
Example: A load with a resistance of 4 ohms and an inductance
Semiconductor fuses are usually used in conjunction with SSRs
of 0.0025 henry is driven from a 28 volt DC supply wllile being
and are specialist fuses designed to protect while operating at close
switched on and off 5 times a second:
to their full ratings. They are sometim8s ref8rr8d to as current
limiting fuses, providing extremely fast opening, while restricting let
28 volts
1=--- through current far below the available fault current that could
L 4 ohms
destroy the SSR. Although these fuses are not low cost, they do

= 7 amperes
provide a means of protecting SSRs against high current overloads
where survival of tile SSR is of prime importance.
1
t = - = 0.2 second The following are the main parameters used in the selection of a
r 5
semiconductor fuse:

72 x .0025 • Fuse voltage rating

p=
0.2 • Fuse current rating
• Available system fault cLirrent
= 0.613 watt • Fuse peak let through cLirrent
• Fuse total clearing (or let througll)
A protective diode or zener with a 3/4 watt rating would suffice. • Surge withstanci capability of the SSR

1661 PAGEl DC) Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll fme)
SSR Applications
RUN
WINDING

The diagrams in this section are conceptual illustrations of just a few

typical SSR applications. They are intended as design guides to
AC
POWER
steer the user in the right direction and to stimulate further design
ideas. Some of the diagrams provide problem solving or circuit
protection and others enhance relay operation.

Latching SSR
Momentary push-button control allows the SSR to self-latch for
on-off, stop-start operations. It may be similarly configured for DC
in/DC out type SSRs.
Fig. 30 Motor starting switch.
Resistor R1 (10,000 ohms) is required to prevent line short only if
altemate (N 0) switch is used.

Functional Three-Phase Switch for Three-Wire System

AC Two SSRs may be used to control a Y or a delta load in a three-wire

-i bS~A~T
OUTPUT

SSR
system. A third SSR would be required in phase C if the center of
10kQ
AC
POWER
AC
the Y load were grounded, as in a four-wire system. SSR voltage
(120-240 V)
R, 19 INPUT 9 rating must be greater than line to line voltage for three-wire
rv J I
systems and line to ground voltage for four-wire systems (with
1
neutral ground).
-iI]Lc -i~
NO
STOP
STOP (ALTERNATE)
SSRs are most commonly used in three-phase applications to
control motors, where their current ratings depend as much on

Fig. 28 Latching SSR circuit. locked motor current as they do on normal run current and proper
heat sinking. Where a motor rating is not given, a minimum SSR
current value can be estimated from the device surge curves,
Latching SSR with Short-Circuit Protection using the general rule of six times the motor run current for one
Push-button control as in the previous example, but R2 is tailored second. This value must also be commensurate with thermal and
to limit the load shorting current to SSR surge rating (for turn-off lifetime requirements.
time), thus preserving SSR while the control signal is removed.
Latching characteristic permits lock-out until the circuit is reset.

PHASE A 0------0 "lu---I-o AC

10 kQ
AC
POWER
(120-240 V)
PHASE 8 0----0 ";0--++0

PHASE C 0---0 :

SERIES
MECHANICAL OR PARALLEL
SAFETY CONTROL
DISCONNECT

Fig. 29 Latching SSR with short-circuit protection.

Fig. 31 Functional three-phase switch for three-wire system.

Motor Starter Switch

Initial locked rotor current flowing through R1 creates a voltage that,
when rectified and filtered, turns on the SSR, which in turn activates
the start winding. As the motor comes to speed, the voltage across
R1 is reduced until the start winding is de-energized.

The SSR should have a voltage rating approximately twice that

of the applied line to withstand overvoltage generated by the
current LC.

L® Tech'Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free) IPAGEl 167

Phase-Controlled Dimming CONTROL
SWITCH

A 555 timer and a photocoupler may be used with a non-zero

switching (instant-on) SSR to provide isolated lamp dimming.

The IC is operating as a one shot, triggered by a negative pulse

from the output of the zero detector circuit (Q1). Once triggered, the
timing interval begins and the SSR is off. Upon time out, dependent
on the time constant of R1 C1, IC output (pin 3) goes low and the
SSR turns on for the balance of the half cycle. Simultaneously, C1 is
discharged through a transistor in the IC (pin 7), and the process
repeats every half cycle.

The phase angle firing point is independent of DC control voltage.

However, at the higher DC voltages and shorter firing angles (full Fig. 32 P/Jase-contro/led dimmllJg.
on), the IC may over-dissipate due to the repetitive discharge of C1,
and possibly require a small heat sink.

Three-Phase Motor Reversal

Four AC SSRs can provide a reversing function for a three-phase Semiconductor type fuses should be chosen to permit such a
motor, using the drive logic suggested. The half cycle time delay condition for one cycle and open as soon as possible thereafter.
before enabling the drive, in either direction, prevents make before SSRs should have a transient (blocking) rating equal to twice the
break which would result in a line to line short. Two opposing SSRs line to line voltage to withstand the combined line and back EMF
(nos. 1 and 4, or 2 and 3) could still mistrigger simultaneously due generated at the moment of reversal.
to dv/dt or high voltage transients; therefore, resistors R1 through
R4 are inserted to limit the resultant surge current. The sum of any
two resistors plus the source impedance should limit the shorting
current to less than the peak one cycle surge rating of each relay.

PHASE A F1

R2

+5 Vdc

DIRECTION
)~-----­
LOGICAL 1 = FWD
LOGICAL 0 = REV

ENABLE 8.3 ms
TIME
DELAY

PHASE B F2
0 6-\

PHASE C F3
0 O\.y

Fig. 33 J,~r8e-phase motor reversal.

,~~

168 lfBill r[)\---~-e-ch-s-up-po-rt-11 877 702 7700 (toll free)

Reversing Motor Drive for DC Motors ~V1-
X LOAD
OUT
In this configuration, four DC SSRs are used for motor reversal from v

11 72A
a single power supply. The time delay before enabling the drive in SSR1
(40 A MAX)

either direction must be greater than the SSR turn-off time to

INPUT IN <;>
preclude the possibility of a hazardous make before break CONTROL

condition.
(SERIES OR
PARALLEL)
I I ACORDC
POWER
SUPPLY
I
~V2-
Rx
Internal reverse diodes or zeners in the SSRs will suppress inductive OUT
12
transients across the low impedance of the power supply. If no SSA2
(40 A MAX)
internal suppressors exist, a reverse diode should be installed
L - - -0
across each SSR output or, alternatively, SSRs with blocking ratings IN <;>
I
at least twice that of the supply voltage may be used. The circuit
should be current limited or fused to protect the wiring in the event
Fig. 35 Paralleling SSRs.
of a short circuit.

For zero voltage turn-on thyristor types, either one of the SSRs
must be capable of handling the initial full load surge alone because
of a possible half cycle mismatch. Thyristor SSRs have additional
tum-on problems that can prevent paralleling.

Transformer Tap Switching

FWD
If a momentary interruption in power is acceptable, a time delay on
tr (.) +
operate is suggested to prevent overlap and the resulting high
MOTOR current surge from a shorted winding. Two times Rx plus the
winding resistance must be sufficient to limit the surge current to
the one cycle surge rating of the SSRs.
DIRECTION f--"'r:=:r-=:::;=-1 As an additional precaution, the SSR blocking (breakdown) voltage
OFF
FWD
should exceed the main winding voltage plus the highest tap
REV
voltage. For mUlti-tap switching the SSRs are generally logic driven
DC controlled AC output types without special requirements. For
Figs. 368 and C, they are 240 Vac output with 120 Vac input for
Fig. 34 Reversing motor drive for DC motors.
SSR1 and 240 Vac input for SSR2 in each case. An important
requirement of SSR2 is that it must be off below the highest expec-
Paralleling SSRs ted 120 Vac line swing, say 150 Vac. When SSR2 is off, SSR1 will
SSRs with MOSFET outputs are self balancing and easily paralleled, be on and vice versa, thus activating the appropriate winding.
whereas most others with bipolar or thyristor outputs require special
attention. Ideally, the forward voltage drops should be matched to
achieve thermal balance and lowest dissipation; alternatively,
balancing resistors (Rx) are used to force current sharing as shown.
For example, with 40 amps allowed through SSR1, SSR2 must
carry 32 amps.

Assuming Vi = 1.3 volts and V2 = 1.5 volts (worst case).

/).V
R =--
x /).1

or

V2 -Vi 1.5 - 1.3

11 -12 40-32

= 0.025 ohm

Thus producing a total voltage drop of 2.3 volts.

c® Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toli free) IPAGEl 169

 SEC RX

~
PRI ~ SSR1

:l
PO:]
~
e.
~
~
~
'?

SSR2
RX

~
; RX
o~
~
~ SSR3
;
;
r-
'(
>=

ACO
RDC
CON TROL 2
INP UTS 3
COM

(A) Multitap switching

SEC RX

SSR1 SSR2

AC AC
AC
INPUT INPUT
POWER
120/240
RX AC
RL
120 Vac POWER
120/240 RX

SSR2 CT
SSR1
RL
AC
INPUT
AC
INPUT

(8) Autotap selection (secondary) (C) Autotap selection (primary)

Fig. 36 Transformer tap switching.

Testing the SSR

Many of the tests required to verify SSR performance are inherently A more complete performance check might include operating the
hazardous and caution should be excercized, using adequate SSR in position with its actual load, while exercising the system
safeguards for the personnel conducting such tests. installation functionally through all of its specified environmental and
power combinations.
Possibly the simplest of all field tests that can be made to
When connecting test equipment directly to the power circuit of an
determine proper function of an AC SSR is by means of a 3 volt
SSR output, protective fusing would be a wise precaution. Also,
battery, a light bulb, and a piece of insulated wire. This simple
remember that with some equipment such as an oscilloscope, the
go/no-go test is illustrated by Fig. 37. case must be "floated" (ungrounded) and may be at line potential. In
some test circuits an isolated current probe or an isolation
LAMP (40 W)
transformer can be used to avoid this hazard. The output functions
,-----+0+
SSR
of an SSR should not ever be checked by a multimeter in the ohms
INPUT UNDER 120 Vac mode, since the minimum voltages and bias currents necessary
TEST
for proper SSR operation are not present, thus producing
erroneous readings.
Fig. 37 Simple go/no-go SSR test.

170 I PAGEl C® Tech Support 11 877 702 7700 (toll free)