AMBO UNIVERSITY

Hachalu Hundessa Campus

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

Building Materials &

Construction - I
ARCH 2161
By: Bekele S.[PPAR]
 Contents
❖ Introduction
❖ Earth/clay
❖ Stone
❖ Brick
❖ Mortar
❖ Binders
❖ Concrete
❖ Building elements with respect to the materials
 one Introduction
Section

❖ What is Building?
❖ What is building materials?
❖ What is Construction?
Building
➢A building or edifice, is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls
standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or
factory (although there's also portable buildings).
➢Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions.
Building materials
➢Building material is material used for construction. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, wood, etc
➢Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products
are in use
Construction
➢Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to
form objects, systems.
➢Building construction is the process of adding structures to areas of
land, also known as real property sites.
Building Materials
• Naturally found Building Materials Processed Building Materials
• Earth/clay Limes , Cement and Tiles
• Sand Limes and Tiles
• Stone Production of Cement
Types of Cement and their
• Quarrying of Stone advantage and
• Classification of Stone Disadvantage
• Selection of Stone Stone Blocks
• Wood
• Structure of Timber
• Defect in Timber
• Preservation of Timber
• Selection of Timber
Before selecting any material for construction , one has
to take in to account the following
- Strength
- Water Resistance
- Durability
- Appearance
- Temperature Resistance and etc
- When One chooses A building material he/she has to
consider the engineering aspect as well as the
economic one.
- The scarcity of Building materials will promote a
boom in the industry sector.
 two Earth
Section

Earth as a building material

• Today earth still remains an important building material.
• Nearly 30 % of the world’s population lives in buildings made of
earth (Johan V, 2018).
• In developing countries even more than half of the population
lives in earth construction.
• building with earth is regaining some interest as it is regarded as
an environmentally friendly option due to its low carbon
footprint, low thermal conductivity and good hygroscopic
features.
• For modern earth constructions often local soil is mixed with
imported materials such as quarry dust, sand and gravel from
quarries.
• Also additives, such as slaked lime, cement or (synthetic) fibers,
are added to the soil mixture in order to achieve higher
compressive strength and better durability.
• Not all soils are suitable for application as building material.
• Important parameters are the grain size distribution, the clay
content, the mineralogical and chemical composition, the organic
material content, etc.
• Earth is available in abundance, it is everywhere locally available
and cheap.
The different earth building techniques
1) Rammed earth
2) Cob constructions
3) Earth blocks
1. Rammed earth
➢Rammed earth is a building technique in which a wet mixture
of mud, sand and gravel is poured in a formwork and is
compacted layer by layer.
2. Cob constructions
➢Cob is a building technique in which plastic (clayey) soil mixtures are formed
in balls and freshly stacked upon each other.
➢ The soil mixture typically consists of soil and water and often straw and sand
are added.
3. Earth blocks
➢Earth blocks can be divided in three groups,
A. adobe blocks,
B. cut blocks and
C. compressed earth blocks, depending on the technique used to
form the block.
A. Adobe blocks:
❖ Adobe blocks are sun dried bricks.
❖A muddy soil mixture, often containing cut straw, is shaped into blocks by filling
a formwork.
❖After shaping the blocks are left to dry in the sun and harden.
B. Cut blocks:
❖ In regions where the soil itself is sufficient cohesive, blocks can be cut out
directly out of the soil.
❖Soil high iron and aluminum concentration giving it its characteristic red color,
is well suited for this form of application.
❖Once cut in blocks and exposed to air, the relatively soft soil hardens
(indurates) due to dehydration of the iron and aluminum oxides.
C. Compressed earth blocks :
❖A compressed earth block (CEB), also known as a pressed earth block or a
compressed soil block, is a building material made primarily from an
appropriate mix of fairly dry inorganic subsoil, non-expansive clay, sand, and
aggregate.
❖Forming compressed earth blocks requires dampening, mechanically pressing
at high pressure, and then drying the resulting material.
 Cut blocks

Adobe blocks
Compressed earth blocks
Stabilized earth blocks

➢ If the blocks are stabilized with a chemical binder such as Portland cement
they are called compressed stabilized earth block (CSEB) or stabilized earth
block (SEB).
➢Typically, around 3,000 psi (21 MPa) of pressure is applied in compression,
and the original material volume is reduced by about half.

Ingredients and Soil Selection

The selection of a suitable soil for mixture with cement is crucial in making
strong stabilized earth blocks.
The best natural soil for stabilized earth blocks is sandy clay .
 Testing Soil Acceptability

❖To determine whether local soil can be used to

make stabilized earth blocks, use "jar test":
➢Fill a glass jar about 1/3 full of soil
➢ Add water to the 2/3 marks.
➢ Shake vigorously for 1 minute.
➢ let the jar set for an hour.

When the soil has settled there should be 3-4 distinct

layers in the jar. If there are not, reject the soil.
 Shrinkage test
Once an acceptable soil has been found, you need to determine how much
cement to mix with it to make strong stabilized earth blocks. This can be done
easily with a "shrinkage test":
➢Make a box 14cm deep, 14cm wide, and 60cm long. Grease or oil the insides
thoroughly.
➢Fill the box with damp, but not muddy, soil.
➢Pack the soil with a shovel or spade, especially at the corners.
➢Level the surface with a straight edge or ruler.
➢ Place the box in the sun for 3 days, or in the shade for 7 days, and protect it
from rain.
➢ The soil should shrink and develop 3 or 4 cracks.
➢ If 6 or more cracks appear, or if the dried soil arches out of the box, reject the
soil. It will not make good blocks.
➢As long as there are less than 6 cracks and the soil lies flat in the box, measure
the shrinkage by tapping the box and sliding the soil to one end.
 Cement: Soil ratio
If the Use a cement: soil ratio of:
shrinkage is:
1 cm or less 1-15

1 cm to 2 cm 1-12

2 cm to 4 cm 1-10

4 cm to 5 cm 1- 9

More than 5 Reject the soil, or add sand

cm and repeat the test
Mixing the Ingredients
➢Once a suitable soil has been selected, it should be
screened through a wire mesh with holes no larger than
5 mm.
➢After the soil has been screened, measure out the
proportions of earth, cement, and any sand to be
added.
➢On a platform or other flat area, mix the ingredients
thoroughly as for concrete.
➢Add water slowly with a watering can until the mixture
is moist but not muddy.
End of Section
 Section
three Stone
❖ Naturally occurring building materials which are widely
used in construction of buildings.
❖ Nowadays it has become an important source of
aggregate (coarse & fine) for manufacturing concrete.
❖ Sources of stone are rock which is not homogeneous in
nature, any definite chemical composition and shape.
 Classification of Stones

Geological Classification Physical Classification Chemical Classification

1. Igneous rock 1. Stratified rocks 1. Silicious rocks

2. Sedimentary rock 2. Unstratified rocks 2. Argillaceous rocks
3. Metamorphic rock 3. Foliated rocks 3. Calcareous rocks
Geological Classification

1. Igneous rock
➢ The rocks which are formed by cooling of magma are known as the igneous rocks.
➢ The rocks formed by solidification of magma within the mantle or crust are called intrusive
igneous rocks,(e.g. granite and gabbro) and those that form at the surface from lavas are
called extrusive igneous rocks(e.g. basalt and rhyolite).
➢ Ex. Plutonic rocks, hypabyssal rocks and volcanic rocks.

2. Sedimentary rock
➢ Sedimentary rocks are derived from preexisting materials through the work of mechanical or
chemical agencies under conditions normal at the surface of the earth, or they may be
composed of accumulations of organic debris.
➢ The process or processes by which soft sediment is transformed into rock is called lithification.

3. Metamorphic rock
➢ These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks.
➢ The igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are subjected
to great heat and pressure.
➢ The process of change is known as the metamorphism.
 Physical Classification
1. Stratified rocks
➢ These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of
Stratification or cleavage.
➢ They can be easily split along these planes.
➢ Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.

2. Unstratified rocks
➢ These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains.
➢ They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the
examples of this type of rocks.

3. Foliated rocks
➢ These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only.
➢ The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified
rocks.
➢ This type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
 Chemical Classification

1. Silicious rocks
➢ The main content of these rocks is silica.
➢ They are hard and durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand
stones etc.
2. Argillaceous rocks
➢ The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay.
➢ These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle.
➢ They cannot withstand shock.
➢ Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.
3. Calcareous rocks
➢ The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate.
➢ Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a
calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING STONE

• Despite the abundance of rock, relatively few stones

satisfy the requirements as building stones.
• The important requirements are:
(1) strength,
(2) hardness,
(3) workability,
(4) durability,
(5) color and grain,
(6) porosity and texture,
(7) ease of quarrying, and
(8) accessibility.
GENERAL TYPES OF STONE USED IN ETHIOPIA
➢Stone which does, in general, satisfy the foregoing requirements and
which is commonly used for construction in Ethiopia include: basalt,
trachyte, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, ignimbrite, pumice,
and scoria.
➢Basalt and trachyte are very common in Ethiopia and are mostly used
for stone masonry work and as boulders or crushed stone for road
construction and crushed aggregate for concrete making.
➢Granite is generally hard, strong, durable, and capable of taking a
high polish.
Granite has a wide variety of use in building, including flooring, interior
and exterior facing, stair trades and skirting.
➢Owing to its beautiful colors and durability marble is used as wall
cladding material, floor finishing and window sill.
➢Sandstone, and ignimbrite are widely used for decorative purpose.
Ambo sand stone is a typical example in this aspect.

➢Pumice and scoria are found in large quantities in the rift valley.
▪ they are widely used in the manufacture of light weight concrete
block.
▪ Owing to its light weight concrete made of pumice is used for
forming slopes on flat concrete roofs.
▪ Pumice is also used for production of Portland pozzolana cement.
End of Section
 Section
four Bricks
❖ Bricks are obtained by molding clay in
rectangular blocks of uniform size and
then by drying and brining these
blocks.
❖ As bricks are of uniform size, they can
be properly arranged and further they
are light in weight.
❖ The bricks do not require any dressing
and the art of laying bricks is simple, so
that it can be carried out with the help
of unskilled labors.
Suitability of bricks
At present, bricks are the most favored construction material
worldwide due to the following reasons:
• Availability-clays are available almost universally
• Construction methods-very experienced skill bricklayers are
available in all villages,& towns
• Size, shape and handling-Bricks are made in ready-to-use sizes
and shapes
 RAW MATERIALS
➢Bricks are manufactured from clays.
➢By moistening and mixing with water, clays become plastic, easy to mold
and are capable to retain their shape on drying.
Clay soils are of two types:
➢Residual clay (Formed from decay of underlying rocks)
➢Transported clay/sedimentary(formed from materials removed from
parent rock ,transported and deposited somewhere else by wind or air.
Manufacture Of Bricks
The process of manufacture of bricks is carried out in a number of stages.
1. Selection of suitable type of brick earth
2. Preparations and tempering of mud
3. Shaping and molding of brick units
4. Drying of molded bricks
5. Firing or burning of units
6. Cooling of the units
1. Selection of suitable type of brick earth

➢A clay soil for brick making should be such that when prepared
with water, it can be molded, dried and burnt without cracking
or changing its shape or warping.
➢The ideal composition of a good brick earth is:
• Clay (Alumina) – 20-30%
• Silica (free and combined) – 50%-60%
• CaO, MgO – 4.5%
• Iron oxide – 5%-6%
➢The earth should be free from alkalis, organic matter and free
lime.
2. Preparation and tempering of mud

A two stage process:

• Clay Wining: The operations of selecting the earth, clearing
and digging it, spreading it for weathering.
• Tempering: the process of converting the prepared brick
earth into a homogeneous mix of desired plasticity by
mixing it thoroughly with proper quantities of water.
3. Shaping and Molding of bricks
➢Molding is the process of making properly shaped brick units from
thoroughly tampered clay.
➢The brick at this stage is known as “green brick”.

4. Drying of bricks
➢ After molding, the green bricks have to be dried.
Reasons for drying:
• To make them sufficiently rigid, strong for handling and stacking
• To minimize the risk of rapture
• To save fuel during burning stage
Drying of bricks is achieved either by natural methods or by artificial
methods.
 Artificial Drying of bricks

Natural Drying of bricks

 5. Firing
Firing of the dried bricks is essential to develop the desired building
properties such as:
• Sufficient strength
• Hardness
• Durability and
• Resistance to decay and disintegration
i. Temperature (20-150oc)…loss of moisture.
ii. Temperature (150-600oc)…loss of moisture,
hardening starts.
iii. Temperature (600-950oc)…chemical changes
start to occur which gives the brick color,
hardness & durability.
iv. Temperature (950-1200oc)…verification occurs
(glass like material forms which glue all of the
elements together.)
ADVANTAGES OF FIRED CLAY PRODUCTS
Fired clay products:
• Can have high compressive strengths
• Provide excellent fire-resistance
• Weather resistant and can remain without any surface protection
• Have no wastage

DISADVANTAGES FIRED CLAY PRODUCTS

• Relatively high fuel consumption of the firing process

• A possible defect of burnt bricks…"efflorescence"
• Good quality fired clay products tend to be expensive
• Capital investments for fuel efficient kilns are often too high
Types And Classification Of Bricks
❖ Bricks can be classified according to their usage as:
A. Common bricks and
B. Facing Bricks

❖ Bricks can be classified according to their shape and nature as:

A. Solid clay bricks and
B. Hollow clay bricks
1. Common Bricks 2. Facing Bricks
➢ Common bricks are those that are ➢Facing bricks have a suitable
used where they will not normally be appearance for use where they
exposed to view and where there is
no claim as to their appearance. will be exposed to view so that
they give an attractive and
➢They are suitable for general use in
construction, given that they possess pleasant effect.
adequate strength and durability for
the location.
 Solid Clay Bricks
According to the Ethiopian Standard, solid bricks
are of the following three types.
1. Brick without holes or depression (type TS)
2. Brick with holes up to 20 mm in diameter each and having
a total cross sectional area not exceeding 25% of the base
area of the brick (type TH)
3. Brick with depression not exceeding 25 percent of the base
area having a maximum depth of the depression not more
than 10mm (type TD).
Hollow Clay Bricks
According to the Ethiopian Standard, hollow and
beam tiles bricks are of the following three types.
1. With two faces keyed for plastering or rendering
(type kk)
2. With two faces smooth and suitable for use with
out plastering or rendering on either side. (type
ss) and
3. With one face smooth and another face keyed for
plastering (type sk)
Tests for Clay Bricks
A) Field tests:
such as appearance, hammer and hardness
✓Appearance test is that: shape, plainness, color etc.
✓When stroked with hammer, a properly burnt dry brick free from cracks emits
a highly metallic ring.
✓The hardness of a brick sample can be checked by scratching its surface or
broken section with a knife or fingernail. A well-burnt brick will be scratched
with difficulty.
✓A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from a height of
about one meter on to a hard floor. It should not break.
B) Laboratory tests
Minimum Compressive Strength
1. Compressive strength test
Minimum Compressive Strength
Class
2. Water absorption test Average of 5 bricks Individual bricks
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
3. Efflorescence test and A 20 17.5
4. Saturation coefficient test = B 15 12.5
(absorption after 24 hrs in cold water) C 10 7.5
absorption after boiling for 5hrs
D 7.5 5.0
 Qualities of good brick
1) The bricks should be table-moulded, well-burnt in kilns, copper-colored,
free from cracks and with sharp and square edges. The color should be
uniform and bright.
2) The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3) The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when stuck with
each other.
4) The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogenous
and uniform compact structure free from voids.
5) The bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for I
class brick and 22 percent by weight for II class brick when soaked in
water for 24hrs.
6) The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left
on brick surface, when it is scratched with finger nail.
7) The bricks should not break into pieces when it is dropped on hard
ground from a height of 1 meter.
8) The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be
sound-proof.
9) The bricks when soaked in water for 24hrs should not show deposits
of white salts when allowed to dry in shade.
10) No brick should have the crushing strength less than 3.5 N/mm2.

End of Section
 Mortar
Section
five
❖ Mortar is a combination of sand, a binding
agent like cement or lime and water, used in
masonry buildings to bridge the space
between building blocks.
❖ It is applied in the form of a paste which then
hardens and binds the masonry units such as
stones, bricks, or concrete used in the
construction.
❖ Mortar is a workable paste which hardens to
bind building blocks such as stones, bricks,
and concrete masonry units, to fill and seal
the irregular gaps between them
 Uses of Mortar
➢It bonds masonry elements together in all directions (vertical and
horizontal joints).
➢ It allows forces to be transmitted between the elements and
notably vertical forces (i.e. the weight of the elements themselves,
or applied forces).
➢It enables these forces to be distributed across the whole surface
of the masonry elements.
➢As a wall plaster and constituent of concrete.
Types of Mortar
There is a large number of mortar types used in the construction industry.
1. Mud mortar
2. Lime-sand mortar
3. Pozzolime mortar
4. Cement-sand mortar
5. Cement-lime-sand mortar
1. Mud mortar
✓The most elementary mortar
✓Is made from soil mixed with water
✓It may be suitable for laying soil blocks
✓Is not recommended for fired bricks
✓If exposed to the weather will quickly be eroded by rain

2. Lime-sand mortar
✓Lime and sand mortar is traditional material
✓use of lime results in a relatively workable mixture
✓ slow hardening makes it less attractive than cement mortars
3.Pozzolime mortar
• Naturally occurring volcanic ashes may contain siliceous material
which can have a pozzolanic reaction with lime.

4. Cement-sand mortar
• The traditional mortar material for building work was lime, but
later to an increasing extent Portland cement replaced it.
• While the use of lime results in a relatively workable mixture,
rapid development of strength as well as stronger mortar is
most conveniently obtained with Portland cement.

5. Cement-lime-sand mortar
• In order to combine the advantages of both lime and cement, mortars
are prepared with appropriate proportions of Portland cement, lime
and sand, which is known as compo-mortar.
 Ingredients of mortar
The most commonly used mortar ingredients to make different types of mortar
are:
Cement, Lime, Sand, Surki, Mud, Water.
Sand:
✓should be well graded, that is the particles should not all be fine or all coarse.
✓should be clean, free from dust, loam, clay and vegetable matter
Water
Clean water is important for the same reasons, as is clean sand; any impurities
present will affect bond strength between the paste and sand.
Proportioning of the component materials
In proportioning the component materials the following points must
also be considered:
➢The mixture must be workable so that it can be placed and
finished without undue labor. (Workable)
➢Since Portland cement is the most costly ingredient in the
mixture the proportion used should be as small as its consistent
with the attainment of desired properties. (Economical)
Application of mortar
• Brick laying mortars:
➢The mortars for brick lying are intended to be used for brickwork and walls.
➢Depending upon the working conditions and type of construction, the
composition of masonry mortars with respect to the kind of binding material is
decided.
• Finishing mortars:
➢These mortars include common plastering work and mortars for developing
architectural or ornamental effects.
➢The cement or lime is generally used as binding material for ordinary plastering
mortars.
➢For decorative finishing, the mortars are composed of suitable materials with
due consideration of mobility, water retention, resistance to atmospheric actions
etc.
Special mortar
➢Fire resistant mortars: The mortar is prepared by adding aluminous cement
to the fine crushed powder of fire bricks.
➢Light-weight mortars: This mortar is prepared by adding materials such as
sawdust, wood powder etc., to the lime mortar or cement mortar.
➢Packing mortars: To pack oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties
of high homogeneity, water-resistance, pre-determined setting time, ability
to form solid water- proof plugs.
➢Sound absorbing mortars: To reduce the noise level, the sound absorbing
plaster is formed with the help of sound absorbing mortars.
➢X-ray shielding mortars: This type of mortars is used for providing the
plastering coat to walls and ceiling of x-ray cabinets. It is heavy type of
mortar with bulk density over 22 KN/m3.
Properties of good mortar
➢It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the
building units such as bricks, stones etc.
➢It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
➢It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.
➢It should be cheap.
➢It should be durable.
➢It should be easily workable.
 Binders
Section
six
❖ Binders are substances that are used to bind inorganic and
organic particles and fibers to form strong, hard and/or
flexible components.
❖ The binding action is generally due to chemical reactions
which take place when the binder is heated, mixed with
water and/or other materials, or just exposed to air.
Types of binders to be discussed
Binders

Lime

Gypsum Plasters

Asphalt Cement

Portland Cement
Main groups of binders
There are three main groups of binders:
❖Mineral binders
❖Bituminous (Asphalt) binders
❖Synthetic binders
MINERAL BINDERS

Mineral Binders

Non-hydraulic binders Hydraulic binders

E.g. Lime, Gypsum plasters E.g Portland cement
Non-hydraulic binders
➢ Non-hydraulic binders only harden in the presence of air .
➢ The most common non-hydraulic binder is lime.
➢Hardening depends on its combination with carbon dioxide from the air
(carbonation), by which it again becomes calcium carbonate (limestone).
➢ Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder which occurs naturally as a soft crystalline
rock.
➢ The chemical name is calcium sulfate anhydrate (CaS04.2H20).
➢ By gentle heating up to about the boiling point of water calcium sulfate
hemi-hydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is produced, more commonly known as
"Plaster of Paris", which when mixed with water sets in 10 minutes.
Hydraulic binders
➢ Hydraulic binders require water to harden and develop strength.
➢ The most common hydraulic binder is Portland cement.
➢ Hydraulic binders are usually available in the form of a fine powder.
➢ On account of their affinity to water, hydraulic binders must be stored in
absolutely dry conditions, to avoid premature setting and hardening
(pre- hydration and carbonation)
➢ Even humid air can cause hydration.
➢ Hydraulic and semi-hydraulic limes are obtained from burning
limestone, which contains a large or moderate amount of clay.
BITUMINOUS BINDERS
➢ "Asphalt" is a dark brown to black, highly viscous, hydrocarbon
produced from petroleum distillation residue.
➢This distillation can occur naturally, resulting in asphalt lakes, or
occur in a petroleum refinery.
SYNTHETIC BINDERS
➢ Synthetic binders are generally produced by industrial processes.
➢They can either be used as adhesives or as surface coatings and are
either applied hot, or as an emulsion, or with a solvent.
➢ Synthetic admixtures which bind loose particles together are mainly
resins derived from plant materials or mineral oil.
➢ Adhesives are used to stick larger particles, components,
membranes, sheets, boards, tiles, etc. on another surface.
 LIME
➢Lime is one of the oldest known cementing material
➢Lime is found in many parts of the world in its natural form as a
rock of varying degree of hardness.
➢Lime is mainly composed of calcium oxide (CaO).
➢Lime in its pure form associates with CO2 to give white CaCo3.
➢Lime deposits are generally found mixed with impurities such as
CO2, Fe2 O3, and MgCO3.
➢Depending on the impurities, lime deposits acquire different colors.
CLASSIFICATION OF LIME
Commercial lime is classified into three groups:

1. Quick lime (Caustic lime)

2. Hydrated lime (Slaked lime)
3. Hydraulic lime
1. Quick Lime
➢ The manufacture of quick lime consists in burning the limestone in some
form of vertical kilns to a temperature of 1000 0c.

CaCO3 → CaO+CO2
➢Is obtained by calcining (burning) the purest available calcium carbonate
➢Gives out considerable heat
➢Swells two to three times of its original volume upon addition of water
➢Takes much time in hardening
➢Is used for plastering and white washing
➢Is not suitable for being used as mortar because of its poor strength and
slow hardening
2. Hydrated Lime (Slaked Lime)
➢ Quick lime can never be used as such for construction purposes
but must be mixed with water.
CaO+H2O →Ca (OH)2 + heat
➢ This process is called slaking and the product (calcium
hydroxide) is called slaked lime or hydrated lime
Forms of hydrated lime
➢ Depending upon the amount of water added during the
slaking process, three forms of hydrated lime are commonly
produced:
a) Dry hydrate, a dry, fine powder, formed by adding just enough
water (Dry-Slaking) to slake the lime, which is dried by the heat
evolved;
b) Milk of lime, made by slaking quicklime with a large excess of
water (Wet-Slaking) and agitating well, forming a milky
suspension.
c) Lime putty, a viscous mass, formed by the settling of the solids in
the milk of lime.
3. Hydraulic Lime
➢Is prepared by burning impure limestone that contains
clay, producing compounds similar to those present in
Portland cement.
➢It is stronger but less fat or plastic than non-hydraulic lime.
➢It is manufactured in the same way as quick lime,
although a somewhat higher temperature is required in
burning.
 SETTING & HARDENING OF LIME
➢Slaked lime hardens or sets by gradually losing the water
through evaporation and absorbing carbon dioxide from
the air thus changing back from calcium hydroxide, Ca
(OH)2 to calcium carbonate, CaCO3 or limestone.
 USES OF LIME
1.Lime as a construction material
✓ As mortar (lime mortar) mixed with sand.
✓ Lime is used in cement mortar to make it more workable
✓ As plaster (lime plaster)
✓ As a whitewash, when it gives a sparkling white finished at a very
low cost
✓ As lime concrete
✓ As a stabilizer in soil constructions with clayey soils
2. Lime as an industrial material
✓ In industry, lime finds many applications:
✓ As a flux in the metallurgical industry
✓ As a refractory material for lining metallurgical furnaces;
✓ As a raw material for the manufacture of glasses.

3. Lime as an agricultural input

➢ Lime is used for improving the productive qualities of soils.
➢ It is added to the poor soils to enrich their lime content.
 GYPSUM PLASTERS
➢ Gypsum is a combination of sulfate of lime with water of crystallization.
➢Gypsum occurs naturally as:
A. Hydrous sulfate of lime (Ca SO4 2H2O) which is generally 76% CaSO4
and 24% H2O
B. Anhydrate (Ca SO4).
Pure gypsum is known as alabaster and it is a white translucent crystalline
mineral
Gypsum plasters
➢ Gypsum plasters are used in the arts and in building construction.

➢ Gypsum plasters are manufactured by heating the raw material

gypsum at either moderate or high temperatures the results being
plaster of Paris or hard-finish plaster respectively.
PLASTER OF PARIS
➢If some of the water of crystallization is driven off by incomplete
dehydration at a temperature just above the boiling point of water
(100 0c) ,pure finely ground gypsum, a semi-hydrated plaster is
obtained which is known as plaster of Paris.
(CaSO4.2H2O)+Moderate Heat (CaSO4 .1/2 H2O) +1/2 H2O
➢Is a white powder having a specific gravity of 2.57.
➢Is also known as low-temperature gypsum derivative or semi-
hydrated plasters (hemi hydrate).
➢When mixed with sufficient water to form a plastic paste it sets very
rapidly (retarder must be added)
➢Glue ,sawdust or blood can be added to Retard the setting time of
the plaster.
➢Owing to rapidity of setting ,its use in structures is limited to
ornamental work.
Other Derivatives of Gypsum
1. Gypsum Ready Mixed Plaster
• Is calcined gypsum(CaSo4.1/2H2O) mixed at the mill with mineral aggregate to
serve as a base to receive various coats.
• Contains about 60% of CaSo4.1/2H2O
2. Gypsum Neat plaster
• Contains about 66% of CaSo4.1/2H2O by weight.
• The addition of aggregate is made on site.
3. Gypsum Wood fibered plaster
Composed of not less than 66% of CaSo4.1/2H2O and about 1% wood fiber.
4. Gypsum bond plaster
• Used as a bonding scratch -coat over monolithic concrete.
• It contains not less than 93% of CaSo4.1/2H2O and not less than 2% or more than
5% of hydrated lime.
5.Gypsum Gauging Plaster

• Is prepared for mixing with lime putty for the finish coat.
Contains not less than 66% of CaSo4.1/2H2O
 Cement
➢ Cement is one of the most widely used construction material and is
the most important hydraulic cement.

History of Portland Cement

❑ In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British stonemason, obtained a patent for a
cement he produced in his kitchen.
❑ The inventor heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and clay in
his kitchen stove and ground the mixture into a powder create a
hydraulic cement-one that hardens with the addition of water.
❑ Aspdin named the product “Portland cement” because it resembled a
stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British Coast.
 Raw Materials
Portland cement is made from materials which must contain the
proper proportions of:
➢lime (CaO), 62% - Plasticity
➢silica (SiO2), 22% - Strength
➢alumina (Al2O3), 5% - Setting
➢iron (Fe2O3)
with miner amounts of magnesia trioxide, sulfur, Alkalies, Calcium
Sulphate.
Difference between cement and lime

➢Cement are used in environments which are not favourable to lime

➢Cement after converted to a paste form sets quickly
➢They have different colours
➢When water is added to cement, no slaking action takes place
hence no heat is produced.
 Manufacture Of Ordinary Cement

➢ Quarrying
➢ Crushing
➢ Grinding
➢ Mixing
➢ Calcining
➢ Addition of retarder
➢ Packing
 Setting action of cement
❑ Achieves 70% of it’s strength in 28 days and 90% of it in about a
year.
❑ Factors affecting site for cement Factory Climatic condition,
Labour , market, Power, Raw material, Transport facilities etc
Packing and storage of cement
❑ Cement is most commonly stored after its manufacture in specially
designed concrete storage tanks called silos where from it is drawn
off mechanically for the market.
❑ For convenience, the cement comes to the customer in bags.
➢ At all stages up to the time of use, cement must be kept dry so as
to prevent or minimize deterioration from the effects of moisture,
atmospheric humidity and carbonation
➢ Airtight drums and internally coated bulk silos are ideal storages.
➢ Cement in multi wall paper bags should be stored in a waterproof
building with close-fitting doors, which should be kept closed as
much as possible.
➢ The bagged cement should be stacked on pallets or on a dry
board platform; some 150mm clear of the surface kept 150-
300mm clear of the walls.
➢ In regions of high relative humidity, insulation and a storage
temperature of 45 o c are advisable.
➢ Bags of cement should be stacked close together, so as to restrict
the circulation of air around them.
➢ Cement which is four months old should be classified as aged and
be restricted before use.
TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT
• Portland Cement
• Acid resistant Cement
• Blast Furnace Cement
• Coloured cement
• Expanding cement
• High Alumina Cement
• Hydrophobic Cement
• Low heat Cement
• Pozzolana Cement
• Quick setting cement
• Rapid Hardening cement
• Sulphate resisting Cement
• White Cement
Use of Cement
❖Cement mortar
❖Concrete
❖Heavy structures
❖along joints for drainage pipes
❖In manufacturing of drainage pipes
❖Preparation of watertight floors
 Section
seven Concrete
• Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of
aggregate and a binder such as cement.
• The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists
of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), Portland cement and water.
After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like
material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the
term concrete.
• Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a
chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which
bonds the other components together, eventually creating a robust stone-like
material. Concrete is used to make pavements, pipe, architectural structures,
foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures,
brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles.
GOOD CONCRETE:- hard, strong, durable, dense, non- porous,
fire- resistant, economical.
:- strength, impermeability are not requirements for
internal partitions etc.
• Concrete: Strong in Compression and weak in Tension
• Steel: Equally strong in Compression and Tension
• R.C.C: Combination of Concrete and Steel to achieve a monolith with strong compression
and tension characteristics.

2. CONCRETE COMPOSITION
CONSTITUENTS
1. Matrix(cement) 2. Fine aggregate & 3. Coarse aggregate with water
1. Matrix
• Mostly ordinary Portland cement  1M3 = 1442 KG
• Rapid hardening cement for (general) speedy construction 
• (fire resistant) blast furnace cement for marine work 
• High alumina cement for structures to withstand high stresses 
• Sulphate resistant & super sulphate cements for sulphate grounds 
• Clay soils, industrial waste bearing soils attack ordinary p.c.
2. Fine aggregate
• Sand that passes through 4.8mm square mesh as British standard 882
• Quarry & river sands can be used
• Sea sand, if washed with fresh water, avoids efflorescence & promotes economy
3.Coarse aggregate
• Which is retained on a 4.8mm meshed sieve
• 19 mm for r.c.c work, 38mm & 64mm for mass concrete, foundtion
• Cleanliness of materials( for adhesion & setting)
• Strong (to resist stresses)
• Durable (to withstand alternate dryness, wetness, frost etc.)
• Graded (for economy, development of strength & workability)
• Free of combustible material (for adequate fire resistance)
• Inert in presence of water (to avoid disruption, expansion, contract)
4. Water
• 1 M3 = 1000kg W/C ratio
3. FUNCTION OF INGREDIENTS
Composition
• There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions
of the main ingredients below. By varying the proportions of materials, or by
substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the finished product can
be tailored to its application with varying strength, density, or chemical and
thermal resistance properties.
• The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete
will be mixed and delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure.
1. Cement
• Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a
basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and plaster. it was named because of its
similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of
Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of
oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials
are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this
product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).
2. Water
• Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the
process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills
voids within it, and allows it to flow more freely.
• Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete;
more water will give an freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure
water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in
causing premature failure of the structure.
• Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same
time. As the reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration
process gradually bond together the individual sand and gravel particles,
and other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
• Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
• Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
• Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2
3. Aggregates
• Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand,
natural gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled
aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) are
increasingly used as partial replacements
of natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including
air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
• Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are
sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed
aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers.
• The presence of aggregate greatly increases the robustness of concrete over
and above that of cement, which otherwise is a brittle material, and thus
concrete is a true composite material.
• Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to
the influence of vibration. As a result, gradients of strength may be significant.
4. Reinforcement
• Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the
compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the
aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail.
• Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either steel reinforcing bars,
steel fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads. Thereafter the concrete
is reinforced to withstand the tensile loads upon it.
Chemical admixtures
• Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to
the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete
mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and
are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.
The common types of admixtures are as follows.
• Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical
materials used are CaCl2 and NaCl. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion
in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries.
• Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable. Typical polyol
retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid, and tartaric
acid.
• Air entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will
reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's
durability. However, entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air
may result in 5% decrease in compressive strength.
• Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be
placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. Typical plasticizers are
lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete
while maintaining workability, and are sometimes called water-reducers due to
this use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability characteristics.
 Superplasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of
plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects, and can be used to
increase workability more than practical with traditional plasticizers.
Compounds used as superplasticizers include sulfonated naphthalene
formaldehyde condensate, sulfonated melamine formaldehyde
condensate, acetone formaldehyde condensate, and polycarboxylate
ethers.
• Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
• Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel
bars in concrete.
• Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
• Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and reduce
separation and bleeding.
• Mineral admixtures and blended cements
Mixing concrete
• Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality concrete.
Therefore, equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing
concrete materials containing the largest specified aggregate to produce uniform
mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work.
• Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a
paste before combining these materials with aggregates can increase the
compressive strength of the resulting concrete.
• The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to
cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include
admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, plasticizers, pigments, or silica fume.
The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch
water, and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.
• High-energy mixed (HEM) concrete is produced by means of high-speed mixing of
cement, water, and sand with net specific energy consumption of at least 5
kilojoules per kilogram of the mix. A plasticizer or a superplasticizer is then added
to the activated mixture, which can later be mixed with aggregates in a
conventional concrete mixer.
4. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
• Concrete grips with steel, while setting.
• Transmits stresses to steel
• Equal coefficients of linear expansion: NO internal stresses

Advantages:
• Economical
• Monolithic structural rigidity
• Fire resistant, termite/ borer proof
• No maintenance cost
• Easy availability of constituent materials
• Impermeable to moisture
• Workable and easy to use for ornamental purposes, moldings taking the
shape of container tec.
❖Using concrete to construct buildings offers the best possible protection
and safety in fires:
➢it does not burn or add to fire load
➢it has high resistance to fire, preventing it from spreading thus reduces
resulting environmental pollution
➢it does not produce any smoke, toxic gases or drip molten particles
➢it reduces the risk of structural collapse
➢it provides safe means of escape for occupants and access for firefighters as it
is an effective fire shield
➢it is not affected by the water used to put out a fire
➢it is easy to repair after a fire and thus helps residents and businesses recover
sooner
➢it provides complete fire protection so there is normally no need for
additional measures
 Causes of Failure
➢When tension exceeds permissible stress in steel
➢When compression exceeds permissible stress in concrete
➢When steel bars slip off concrete
➢Poor quality of materials, poor execution.
➢Thermal extremities.
Concrete slump test
• The concrete slump test is used for the measurement of a property of fresh concrete.
• The test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete.
• The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure.
• The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete
under field conditions, and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.
Concrete slump test
Principle
• The slump test result is a measure of the behaviour of a compacted inverted cone of
concrete under the action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of
concrete
Apparatus
• Slump cone, Scale for measurement
Interpretation of results
• The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped
concrete, the slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or
collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A
collapse slump is an indication of too wet a mix. Only a true slump is of any use in the test.
A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability
mix, for which slump test is not appropriate. Very dry mixes; having slump 0 - 25 mm are
used in road making, low workability mixes; having slump 10 - 40 mm are used for
foundations with light reinforcement, medium workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal
reinforced concrete placed with vibration, high workability concrete; > 100 mm.
 Concrete slump test
Types of slump

Collapse Shear True

In a shear slump the top In a true slump the concrete

In a collapse slump the concrete
portion of the concrete shears simply subsides, keeping more
collapses completely.
off and slips sideways. or less to shape.
Workability
• Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold
properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's
quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size
distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration), and can be modified
by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content or
adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive water will
lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when
the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having
reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in
a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be readily made more
workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
• Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simplistic measure of the
plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test
standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample
from a fresh batch of concrete.
➢The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface.
➢It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with
a steel rod in order to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off,
the enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity.
➢A relatively dry sample will slump very little, having a slump value of one or two
inches (25 or 50 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as
eight inches. Workability can also be measured by using the Flow table test.
➢Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or
superplasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio. Some other
admixtures, especially air-entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.
➢High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-
measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the
narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is
gradually lifted.
➢After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to where it is needed.
Curing
❑In all but the least critical applications, care needs to be taken to properly cure
concrete, and achieve best strength and hardness. This happens after the concrete
has been placed. Cement requires a moist, controlled environment to gain strength
and harden fully. The cement paste hardens over time, initially setting and becoming
rigid though very weak, and gaining in strength in the weeks following. In around 3
weeks, over 90% of the final strength is typically reached, though it may continue to
strengthen for decades.
❑Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical.
Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind
during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not
yet gained significant strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early
strength of the concrete can be increased by keeping it damp for a longer period
during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High
early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of
cement that increases shrinkage and cracking. Strength of concrete changes
(increases) up to three years. It depends on cross-section dimension of elements
and conditions of structure exploitation.
❑During this period concrete needs to be in conditions with a controlled
temperature and humid atmosphere. In practice, this is achieved by
spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water, thereby protecting
concrete mass from ill effects of ambient conditions.
❑Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower
permeability, and avoids cracking where the surface dries out
prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing, or overheating
due to the exothermic setting of cement (the Hoover Dam used pipes
carrying coolant during setting to avoid damaging overheating).
Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion
resistance, and cracking.
Mix design
➢Modern concrete mix designs can be complex. The design of a concrete, or the
way the weights of the components of a concrete is determined, is specified by
the requirements of the project and the various local building codes and
regulations.
➢The design begins by determining the "durability" requirements of the concrete.
These requirements take into consideration the weather conditions that the
concrete will be exposed to in service, and the required design strength.
➢The compressive strength of a concrete is determined by taking standard molded,
standard-cured cylinder samples.
➢Many factors need to be taken into account, from the cost of the various additives
and aggregates, to the trade offs between, the "slump" for easy mixing and
placement and ultimate performance.
➢A mix is then designed using cement (Portland or other cementitious material),
coarse and fine aggregates, water and chemical admixtures. The method of mixing
will also be specified, as well as conditions that it may be used in.
• This allows a user of the concrete to be confident that the structure will perform
properly.
• Various types of concrete have been developed for specialist application . To name
some of them;
• Regular concrete
Regular concrete is the lay term describing concrete that is produced by following the
mixing instructions that are commonly published on packets of cement, typically using
sand or other common material as the aggregate, and often mixed in improvised
containers. This concrete can be produced to yield a varying strength from about 10
MPa (1450 psi) to about 40 MPa (5800 psi), depending on the purpose, ranging from
blinding to structural concrete respectively. Many types of pre-mixed concrete are
available which include powdered cement mixed with an aggregate, needing only
water.
Typically, a batch of concrete can be made by using 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts
dry sand, 3 parts dry stone, 1/2 part water. The parts are in terms of weight – not
volume.
The sand should be mortar or brick sand (washed and filtered if possible) and the stone should be
washed if possible. Organic materials (leaves, twigs, etc) should be removed from the sand and stone
to ensure the highest strength.
High-strength concrete
High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally greater than
6,000 pounds per square inch (40 MPa = 5800 psi). High-strength concrete
is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often
silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide
crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the strength at the
cement-aggregate bond.
Stamped concrete
• Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete which has a superior surface
finish. After a concrete floor has been laid, floor hardeners (can be
pigmented) are impregnated on the surface and a mold which may be
textured to replicate a stone / brick or even wood is stamped on to give a
attractive textured surface finish. After sufficient hardening the surface is
cleaned and generally sealed to give a protection. The wear resistance of
stamped concrete is generally excellent and hence found in applications like
parking lots, pavements, walkways etc.
Methods for Testing Compressive Strength of Concrete
1. Rebound Hammer or Schmidt Hammer (ASTM C805)
Method: A spring release mechanism is used to activate a hammer which
impacts a plunger to drive into the surface of the concrete. The rebound
distance from the hammer to the surface of the concrete is given a value from
10 to 100. This measurement is then correlated to the concretes’ strength.
2. Penetration Resistance Test (ASTM C803)
Method: To complete a penetration resistance test, a device drives a small pin
or probe into the surface of the concrete. The force used to penetrate the
surface, and the depth of the hole, is correlated to the strength of the in-place
concrete
3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (ASTM C597)
Method: This technique determines the velocity of a pulse of vibrational
energy through a slab. The ease at which this energy makes its’ way through
the slab provides measurements regarding the concrete’s elasticity, resistance
to deformation or stress, and density. This data is then correlated to the slab’s
strength.
4. Pullout Test (ASTM C900)
Method: The main principal behind this test is to pull the concrete using a metal rod that is cast-
in-place or post-installed in the concrete. The pulled conical shape, in combination with the force
required to pull the concrete, is correlated to compressive strength.
5. Drilled Core (ASTM C42)
Method: Method: A core drill is used to extract hardened concrete from the slab. These samples
are then compressed in a machine to monitor the strength of the in-situ concrete.
6. Cast-in-place Cylinders (ASTM C873)
Method: Cylinder molds are placed in the location of the pour. Fresh concrete is poured into these
molds which remain in the slab. Once hardened, these specimens are removed and compressed
for strength.
7. Compression Test
➢ The most common test for hardened concrete is the compressive strength, at a particular
period of time, from the time of casting the concrete cubes.
➢ The compressive strength of cubes gives us the information of the potential strength of the
concrete mix from which it is sampled.
➢ It helps in determining whether correct mix proportions of various mix proportions of various
materials were used to get the desired strength.
 Defects in concrete
Different types of defects in concrete structures can be cracking,
crazing, blistering, delamination, dusting, curling, efflorescence, scaling
and spalling. These defects can be due to various reasons or causes.

Causes for Defects in Concrete Structures

Causes of defects in concrete structures can be broadly categorized as:
➢ Structural deficiency resulting from errors in design, loading criteria,
unexpected overloading, etc.
➢ Structural deficiency due to construction defects.
➢ Damage due to fire, floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc.
➢ Damage due to chemical attack.
➢ Damage due to marine environments.
➢ Damage due to abrasion of granular materials.
➢ Movement of concrete due to physical characteristics.
Structural deficiency resulting from errors in design
➢ Structural Deficiency due to Construction Defects
➢ Defective construction methods form the largest
segment of source of distress to the beams. Such
defects can be broadly subdivided as follows:
➢ Defects due to the quality of raw materials.
➢ Non adoption of designed concrete mix.
➢ Use of defective construction plant for producing,
transporting, and placing the concrete.
➢ Defective workmanship.
➢ Inadequate quality detailing.
Type of defects
1. Cracking
➢ Cracks are formed in concrete due to many
reasons but when these cracks are very deep, it is
unsafe to use that concrete structure.
➢ Various reasons for cracking are improper mix
design, insufficient curing, omission of expansion
and contraction joints, use of high slump concrete
mix, unsuitable sub-grade etc.
➢ To prevent cracking, use low water – cement ratio
and maximize the coarse aggregate in concrete
mix, admixtures containing calcium chloride must
be avoided. Surface should be prevented against
rapid evaporation of moisture content. Loads must
be applied on the concrete surface only after
gaining its maximum strength.
2. Crazing
➢ Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map
cracking, is the formation of closely spaced
shallow cracks in an uneven manner.
➢ Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top
surface of concrete due to high temperatures or if
the mix contains excess water content or due to
insufficient curing.
➢ Pattern cracking can be avoided by proper curing,
by dampening the sub-grade to resist absorption
of water from concrete, by providing protection to
the surface from rapid temperature changes.
3. Blistering
➢ Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of
different sizes on concrete surface due to
entrapped air under the finished concrete surface.
➢ It may cause due to excessive vibration of
concrete mix or presence of excess entrapped air
in mix or due to improper finishing.
➢ Excessive evaporation of water on the top surface
of concrete will also cause blistering.
➢ It can be prevented by using good proportion of
ingredients in concrete mix, by covering the top
surface which reduces evaporation and using
appropriate techniques for placing and finishing.
4. Delamination
➢ Delamination is also similar to blistering. In this
case also, top surface of concrete gets separated
from underlying concrete.
➢ Hardening of top layer of concrete before the
hardening of underlying concrete will lead to
delamination.
➢ It is because the water and air bleeding from
underlying concrete are struck between these two
surfaces, hence space will be formed.
➢ Like blistering, delamination can also be
prevented by using proper finishing techniques.
➢ It is better to start the finishing after bleeding
process has run its course.
5. Dusting
➢ Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of
fine and loose powdered concrete on the
hardened concrete by disintegration. This
happens due to the presence of excess amount of
water in concrete. It causes bleeding of water
from concrete, with this fine particles like cement
or sand will rise to the top and consequent wear
causes dust at the top surface. To avoid dusting,
use low slump concrete mix to obtain hard
concrete surface with good wear resistance. Use
water reducing admixtures to obtain adequate
slump. It is also recommended to use better
finishing techniques and finishing should be
started after removing the bleed water from
concrete surface.
6. Curling
➢ When a concrete slab is distorted into curved shape by
upward or downward movement of edges or corners, it is
called curling.
➢ It occurs mainly due to the differences in moisture content or
temperature between slab surface (top) and slab base
(bottom).
➢ Curling of concrete slab may be upward curling or
downward curling. When the top surface is dried and cooled
before bottom surface, it begins to shrink and upward
curling takes place.
➢ When bottom surface is dried and cooled due to high
temperature and high moisture content, it will shrink before
top surface and downward curling occurs.
➢ To prevent curling, use low shrink concrete mix, provide
control joints, provide heavy reinforcement at edges or
provide edges with great thickness.
7. Efflorescence
➢ Efflorescence is the formation of deposits of salts
on the concrete surface.
➢ Formed salts generally white in color. It is due to
the presence of soluble salts in the water which is
used in making concrete mix.
➢ When concrete is hardening, these soluble salts
gets lifted to the top surface by hydro static
pressure and after complete drying salt deposits
are formed on the surface.
➢ It can be prevented by using clean and pure water
for mixing, using chemically ineffective
aggregates etc.
➢ And make sure that cement should not contain
alkalis more than 1% of its weight.
8. Scaling and spalling
➢ Scaling and spalling, in both the cases concrete
surface gets deteriorated and flaking of concrete
occurs.
➢ The main cause for this type of cases is
penetration of water through concrete surface.
➢ This makes steel gets corroded and spalling or
scaling may occurs.
 Section Building elements
eight with respect to the materials
Essential Elements of a building
➢ A building is an assembly of the roof, beams, columns, and
walls standing firmly on the ground, which provides shelter
for machines, human possessions, industrial equipment, or
any other combination of these.
➢ Size and shape of a building varied throughout history.
➢ Still, some essential elements of a building never change.

➢ All buildings are primarily divided into three partitions.

➢ Foundation: This the lowest part of a building.
➢ Plinth: It is the middle portion.
➢ Superstructure: this is the part constructed above the plinth beam.
The following are the basic elements of a building
1. Foundation
2. Walls and columns
3. Sills, lintels
4. Doors and windows
5. Floors
6. Roofs
7. Steps, stairs, and lifts
8. Finishing work
9. Building services/utilities
1. Foundation
➢ Foundation is a part of the structure that transmits loads directly
and safely to the soil or underlying rock.
➢ Sometimes, the foundation is also called a substructure because it
lowers most of the structure, and the superstructure transmits
loads to it.
➢ The underlying material of the foundation and within the
adjacent zone is termed foundation soil.
➢ It is most affected by the loads, so it is also called s supporting soil.

Foundations main functions and requirements are:

(a) Evenly and safely distribute the superstructure loads to the soil.
(b) it reduces the uneven and unequal settlement of the building.
(c) Anchoring the building to the ground to not move under lateral loads.
(d) It minimizes the overturning possibilities of building due to lateral forces.
(e) It provides a level surface for the construction of a superstructure
Foundation Materials
The choice of foundation material depends on several factors, including the building design, soil
type, and the load-bearing capacity required.

➢ Concrete: Concrete is the most common material used in foundation construction. It is strong,
durable, and resistant to water, which makes it suitable for areas with high rainfall or flooding.
Reinforced concrete is used in areas with high seismic activity, as it can withstand ground movement.
➢ Stone: Stone foundations are durable and resistant to moisture, making them ideal for areas with
high groundwater levels. However, they are expensive to build and require skilled masons.
➢ Brick: Brick is a popular material used in foundation construction. It is strong, durable, and resistant
to moisture, making it suitable for areas with high groundwater levels. However, it is not
recommended for areas with high seismic activity.
➢ Wood: Wood foundations are lightweight and easy to construct, making them ideal for areas with
sandy or rocky soil. They are not recommended for areas with high moisture levels or termites.
➢ Steel: Steel foundations are used in areas with high seismic activity or where the soil is weak. They
are strong and durable, but they are expensive and require skilled labor to install.
➢ Pre-cast concrete: Pre-cast concrete foundations are made off-site and delivered to the construction
site for installation. They are quick to install, but they require careful planning and accurate
measurements to ensure a perfect fit.
2. Walls and columns
➢ These are the vertical member of the building and transfer the
structure loads vertically downwards to the foundation.
➢ Apart from this wall performs the following functions too:
➢ (a) It encloses the building area into separate compartments
and provides privacy.
➢ (b) It provides safety from insects and theft.
➢ (c) Wall also works as an insulator for the weather. It keeps
the building warm in winter and cools in summer.
Walls and columns Materials
Wall Materials

➢ Concrete/Shear Wall
➢ Brick
➢ HCB
➢ Wood
➢ Stone
➢ Tiles
➢ Metal
➢ Glass
➢ Painting
➢ GRP/GRC
➢ Composite materials
Walls and columns Materials
Column Materials

➢ Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone,

brick, block, concrete, timber, steel, and so on, which have good
compressive strength.
3. Sills, lintels
➢ A window frame does not directly place over masonry; instead, it
is placed over 50 to 75 mm thick plain concrete.
➢ This concrete course is called a sill. A sill serves two purposes.
➢ It holds the window or glass in place.
➢ It protects the wall directly below the window by shedding away from
the wall.
➢ Windows or door frames are sufficiently strong to hold the load
of the above structure.
➢ Hence, an RCC or stone is provided above the window or door
opening to transfer the above load uniformly on the wall instead
door frame. This beam is known as a lintel.
➢ The width of the beam is equal to the wall’s width, and thickness
depends on the size of the opening.
Sills and lintels Materials
Some windowsills are made
of natural stone, cast
stone, concrete, tile, or
other non-porous materials to
further increase their water
resistance.
4. Doors and Windows
➢ The doors are used to give access to different rooms and to deny access whenever
required.
➢ It also allows free movement outside the building.
➢ The size of the door should be such it can pass the largest object expected to be used.
It is recommended that the number of doors should be the minimum possible.
Materials
➢ WOOD: If you’re going for natural beauty, then wood is the material to choose for your windows. It is a popular
choice among homeowners for many reasons. Wood gives a home a traditional appearance
➢ VINYL: Vinyl window frames are composed of PVC (polyvinyl chloride), which is used in numerous household
items, construction, and plumbing products. There is pure virgin vinyl and recycled vinyl.
➢ FIBERGLASS: Fiberglass windows have gained traction in recent years. Their makeup of reinforced glass fibers
and resin creates a strong durable material that requires little maintenance. Fiberglass can mimic the look of
wood windows giving them a better aesthetic.
➢ ALUMINUM: For more modern homes, aluminum windows are a good choice. They provide a sleek look and
require less upkeep than other materials. Aluminum is lightweight but very strong and can support large
expanses of glass.
➢ WOOD-CLAD: Wood-clad windows provide homeowners with the appearance of wood without the
maintenance.
➢ COMPOSITE: This type of frame is made from a combination of wood, metal, and vinyl. Choosing composite
windows gives you the best aspects of different materials combined for a stronger product.
5. Floors
➢ The primary function of a floor is to provide a working/functional area
and support of occupants, furniture, and equipment of a building.
➢ The purpose of providing different floors level is to create more
accommodation within the limited space.
Materials
➢ Concrete floor materials
➢ Brick flooring materials
➢ Marble flooring materials
➢ Glass floor materials
➢ Ceramic floor materials
➢ Clay and maram floors
➢ Wood flooring materials
➢ Flooring linoleum
➢ Asphalt pavement materials
➢ Rubber flooring materials
6. Roofs
➢ The roof is the uppermost portion of the building, whose primary
function is to enclose the space by providing a cover and protect the
same from weather effects like rain, sun, cold, etc.
➢ A good roof is as essential as a foundation for the building.
Materials
➢ Asphalt shingles
➢ Wood shingles
➢ Metal roof
➢ Clay tiles
➢ Cement tiles
➢ Slate tiles
➢ Glass and Plastic
➢ PVC roofing
7. Steps, stairs, and lifts
➢ Stairs are the structural component consist of steps that gives convenient
access from the ground floor to other floor levels.
➢ The number of steps required for a building depends upon the difference
level between the floors. Following are the functions of the stairs:

➢ It gives means of communication for a one-floor level to others on day-to-day use.

➢ Provide a way of escape in case of an emergency like a fire.
➢ Some of the basic requirements of any stairs are mentioned below.
➢ All steps in stairs must be uniform in a building. No two consecutive steps are
different.
➢ The ideal size of steps is 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise.
➢ Stairs should be strong and structurally durable to cater the emergency loads
(several people at the same time)
➢ Stairs should not be steep. It should be comfortable in vertical movement,
especially in public places.
➢ It should be easily accessible during an emergency.
8. Finishing works
➢ Some of the building portions like the bottom of the slab, walls, and top
of the floor need smooth finishing with plaster.
➢ After plastering, whitewash, distemper or paints are applied to make it
more decorative.
➢ The function of finishing work is:

(a) it gives a protective cover from sun, rain, and snow.

(b) Finishing work gives a smooth surface and improves the aesthetic
view of the building.
(c) To some extent, rectify the defective workmanship.
(d) it cover-up unsound and porous material used in construction.
Materials for finishing works
1. Floor Finishes 2. Wall Finishes 3. Ceiling Finishes 4. Roof Finishes Types
•Bricks ✓ Plastering ✓ Plaster Board ✓ Corrugated steel
•Stone ✓ Tiling ✓ Plaster Board cove molding ✓ Profiled light aluminium
•Rendering ✓ Skirting ✓ Steel Lathing ✓ Wood shingles
•Tiling ✓ Wallpaper ✓ Plastering ✓ Concrete tiles
•Wood floor covering ✓ Painting ✓ Ceiling linings ✓ Clay tiles
•Terrazzo ✓ Dry Linings ✓ Ceiling tiles ✓ Glazed
•Asphalt ✓ Molding ✓ Spray plaster ✓ Lightweight metallics
•Rubber ✓ Architrave ✓ Ceiling papers ✓ Synthetic slates/tiles
•Linoleum sheet ✓ Timber Cladding ✓ Natural slates
•Glass floor covering ✓ Expanded Polystyrene Tiles ✓ Artificial mineral fibre
•Concrete floor covering ✓ PVC Cladding ✓ Cement slates
•Mosaic floor covering ✓ Ceiling Painting ✓ Titanium-cladding panels
•Cork floor covering
•Magnesite floor covering
•Vinyl asbestos tiles
9. Building services/utilities
➢ Some built-in movable or immovable fixture which adds considerable
utility to the building is called as utility fixtures.
➢ Some of those are electricity, water supply, sanitation, drainage work,
cupboards, and showcase.
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