MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

National University of Sciences Technology Islamabad

Measurement & Instrumentation and Control Lab, 4th semester

Student Name: Zoraiz Abbas

CMS Id: 454752

Section: ME-15 (B)

Lab instructor: Lab Engr. Sania Shaheen

Lab-0: Introduction to control systems and characteristic curves of

water level, temperature and flow rate sensors

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Date : 8 April 2025

Assessment Rubrics
Excellent (910) Good (7-8) Fair (4-6) Poor (1-3)

Introduction Complete and Nearly complete, Some Very little

and Theory well written; missing some introductory background
provides all minor points information, but information
necessary still missing provided, or
background some major information is
principles for the points incorrect
experiment
Experimental Well-written in Written in Written in Missing several
Procedure paragraph paragraph paragraph important
format, all format, format, still experimental
experimental important missing some details or not
details are experimental important written in
covered details are experimental paragraph
covered, some details format
minor details
missing
Results: data, All figures, graphs, All figures, graphs, Most figures, Figures,
figures, graphs, tables are correctly tables are correctly graphs, tables graphs, tables
tables, etc. drawn, are drawn, but some OK, some still contain errors
numbered and have missing some or are poorly
contain minor problems constructed,
important or
titles/captions. or could still be required have missing
improved features titles, captions
or numbers,
units missing or
incorrect, etc.

Discussion All-important trends Almost all the Some of the Very incomplete or
and data results have results have incorrect
comparisons have been correctly been correctly interpretation of
been interpreted interpreted interpreted and trends and
correctly and and discussed, discussed; comparison of data
discussed, good only minor partial but indicating a lack of
understanding improvements incomplete understanding of
of results is are needed. understanding results.
conveyed. of results is still
evident.

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Conclusion All-important All-important Conclusions Conclusions

conclusions have conclusions regarding major missing or
been have been points are missing the
clearly made, drawn, could be drawn, but many important
student shows better stated are misstated, points
good
understanding
Report All sections in All sections in Sections in Sections out of
Formatting, order, well order, order, contains order, too
structure and formatted, very formatting the minimum much
referencing readable. generally well, allowable handwritten
References but could still be amount of copy, sloppy
provided improved. handwritten copy, formatting. No
appropriately References formatting is rough. referencing at
provided, but not Improper all.
entirely References

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Table of Contents
Lab 8: Introduction to control systems and characteristic curves of water level, temperature and
flow rate sensors ............................................................................................................................. 5
Objectives: ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Theory ............................................................................................................................................. 6
1. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) ................................................................ 6
2. Rotameter ................................................................................................................................ 6
3. Thermistor ............................................................................................................................... 7
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Readings:......................................................................................................................................... 9
Table: .......................................................................................................................................... 9
Graph: ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Discussion: .................................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................... 12

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Lab 8: Introduction to control systems and characteristic curves of

water level, temperature and flow rate sensors

Objectives:
The objective of this experiment are as follows:
• To understand the basic principles of control systems and their role in process automation
• To determine the input-output relationship of each sensor by measuring physical quantities
• To evaluate the linearity, sensitivity, and range of the sensors through experimental data.
• To study and analyze the characteristic curves of commonly used sensors for water level,
flow rate and

Apparatus:
Liquid level process:
• LVDT sensor (for height measurement).
• Voltmeter.
• Pump
• Container (to carry liquid).
• Power Supply.
Flow rate control process:
• Rota meter (for flow rate measurement).
• Pump.
• Voltmeter.
• Container (to carry water in and out).

• Power supply. Figure 1 Flow rate control process apparatus

Temperature control process:

➢ Heater.
➢ Voltmeter.
➢ Thermocouple and thermistors.
➢ Condensers (to cool down water).
➢ Fans (to cool the condenser).
➢ Power supply.
➢ Pump.

Figure 2 Temperature control process apparatus

MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Theory
1. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
Input and Output
• Input: AC voltage (Excitation voltage)
• Output: Differential AC voltage proportional to displacement
Working Principle
LVDT is an electromechanical transducer that converts linear displacement into an electrical signal
using the principle of mutual inductance. It consists of:
• A primary coil excited by an AC source.
• Two secondary coils placed symmetrically.
• A movable magnetic core that moves in response to displacement.
As the core moves, it changes the mutual inductance between the coils, producing a differential
output voltage proportional to the displacement.
Applications
• Position Control Systems – Used in servomechanisms and robotic arms.
• Aerospace Systems – Aircraft control surfaces and landing gear position monitoring.
• Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators – Valve position sensing.
• Structural Monitoring – Displacement measurement in bridges and buildings.

2. Rotameter
Input and Output
• Input: Fluid flow (liquid or gas)
• Output: Float position indicating flow rate (analog or digital output)
Working Principle
A Rotameter operates on the principle of variable-area flow measurement. It consists of:
• A tapered tube that widens from bottom to top.
• A float inside the tube that moves based on flow rate.

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

When fluid enters, it pushes the float upwards. The float reaches an equilibrium position where
the upward buoyant force and drag force balance the weight of the float. The height of the float
corresponds to the flow rate, which is read from a calibrated scale.
Applications
• Industrial Process Control – Monitoring liquid and gas flow rates.
• HVAC Systems – Regulating airflow in heating and cooling systems.
• Medical Equipment – Oxygen flow measurement in ventilators.
• Chemical Processing Plants – Ensuring proper fluid mixing and reaction control.

3. Thermistor
Input and Output
• Input: Temperature (Heat energy)
• Output: Change in resistance (converted into voltage or current)
Working Principle
A Thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor that operates on the principle of thermal resistance
variation. It has two main types:
1. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) – Resistance decreases as temperature
increases.
2. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) – Resistance increases as temperature increases.
The change in resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge or a voltage divider circuit and
converted into an electrical signal for temperature monitoring.
Applications
• Temperature Control Systems – Used in industrial and home appliances (HVAC, ovens,
refrigerators).
• Battery Management Systems – Prevents overheating in lithium-ion batteries.
• Automobile Engine Control – Monitors and regulates engine temperature.
• Medical Devices – Used in thermometers and incubators.

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Procedure:
Liquid Level Measurement Process
1. Begin by connecting all necessary wires and power sources as per the circuit diagram
provided in the manual.
2. To calibrate the system, ensure that any pre-existing liquid in the container is completely
removed.
3. Activate the pump, allowing water to flow into the container.
4. Record 10 measurements of the water level using the scale marked on the container.
5. Simultaneously, document the corresponding voltage values for each water level.
6. To reverse the procedure, drain the water from the container.
7. Again, take 10 readings of the water level along with their respective voltage values.
8. Plot a graph to analyze the correlation between water height and voltage.

Flow Rate Regulation Process

1. Power on the pump and configure the system as instructed in the manual.
2. Adjust the pump voltage to a predetermined level and open only the middle pipe’s valve.
3. Water will begin to flow into the container through the middle pipe.
4. Gradually increase the flow rate by 1 LPM (liter per minute) at each step.
5. For each increment, measure and record the corresponding voltage value.
6. Utilize graphical analysis to study the relationship between flow rate and voltage.

Temperature Control Process

1. Ensure all wiring connections are made according to the provided circuit diagram.
2. Fill the container with water.
3. Switch on the system and activate the heater.
4. Monitor the water temperature and record the reading once it exceeds 30–35°C.
5. Take 10 readings, increasing the temperature by 1°C per step.

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

6. For each recorded temperature value, document the corresponding voltage measurement.
7. Graphically analyze the dependency between temperature and voltage.

Readings:
Table:
Table 1 Liquid level process results
Fluid Level Voltage (𝑽𝟏) for rising fluid Voltage (𝑽𝟐) for falling fluid
(cm) level level
(V) (V)
1 1.146 1.4493
2 1.1458 1.449
3 1.1451 1.4476
4 1.1450 1.446
5 1.17 2.2
6 2.19 3.46
7 4.09 4.8
8 5.6 6.1
9 6.7 7.2
10 7.9 8.5
11 9.15 9.8
12 10.6 11.2
13 11.6 12.4
14 11.8 11.6
15 7.1 7.3

Table 2 Flow rate control process results

Flow rate (LPM) Voltage (V)

1 2.04
2 0.50
3 0.3
4 0.22
4.5 0.204
5 0.175

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Table 3 Temperature control process results

Heating Water Voltage Temperature Cooling Water Voltage
(V) (⁰C) (V)
3.309 35 3.33
3.36 36 3.44
3.44 37 3.54
3.51 38 3.61
3.64 39 3.66
3.71 40 3.68
3.81 41 3.71
3.88 42 3.88

Graph:

Fluid level versus Voltages

14

12

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Voltage ( ) for rising fluid (V) Voltage ( ) for falling fluid (V)

Figure 3 Fluid level versus Voltage

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MI & Controls Engineering Lab Report

Voltage versus flow rate

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 4 Voltage versus Flow rate

Voltage wrt Cooling & Heating water temprature

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
3.309 3.36 3.44 3.51 3.64 3.71 3.81 3.88

Temperature (⁰C) Cooling Water Voltage (V)

Figure 5 Voltage versus Temperature

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Discussion:
This experiment investigated the voltage output of three different sensors—one for linear
displacement, one for flow rate measurement, and one for temperature monitoring—in response
to mechanical and thermal inputs.
• Linear Displacement Sensor (LVDT): The voltage remained stable at low water levels
but increased significantly at higher levels, showing greater sensitivity in the mid-to-high
range. Consistent readings during filling and draining confirm its reliability.
• Flow Rate Sensor (Rotameter): An inverse relationship was observed, where increasing
flow rate decreased voltage. Sensitivity was highest between 1–5 LPM, with noticeable
voltage variations for small flow changes.
• Temperature Sensor (Thermistor): Voltage increased almost linearly with temperature,
demonstrating a strong correlation. Consistent readings during heating and cooling confirm
its accuracy and stability.
Possible Limitations:
• Mechanical hysteresis or backlash in the LVDT setup, affecting displacement accuracy.
• Non-linearity in flow sensor response, possibly due to fluid dynamics or electrical
calibration issues.
• Environmental factors or minor errors in voltage readings, leading to deviations in expected
output.

Conclusion:
This experiment provided valuable insights into the operation of different sensors used in control
systems. It demonstrated how LVDT, rotameter, and thermistors can effectively measure liquid
level, flow rate, and temperature, respectively. Each sensor displayed a clear relationship between
the physical parameter and its voltage output. The results highlighted the importance of sensor
sensitivity, accuracy, and reliability, reinforcing their significance in process control, automation,
and industrial applications.

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