MODULE 15

Gas Turbine Engine

Pag.
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.01 Fundamentals

15.1 Pag. 2
 GAS TURBINE ENGINE : CATEGORIES
 There are four different categories of gas turbine engines:

• The turbojet engines

• The turboprop engines

• The turboshaft engines

• The turbofan engines.

• Introduction
15.1 Pag. 3
 IDEAL BRAYTON’S CYCLE

• The gas turbine engine is a heat engine that uses air as a working fluid to
generate thrust

• The air has to be accelerated. The pressure energy is first increased

followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to
kinetic energy in the form of high velocity jet efflux

• Gas turbines generates the flow of gas at high temperature necessary to

produce work by operating according to a particular thermodynamic cycle
called Joule‐Brayton

• Brayton’s cycle
15.1 Pag. 4
 IDEAL BRAYTON’S CYCLE

• Brayton’s cycle
15.1 Pag. 5
 IDEAL BRAYTON’S CYCLE TRANSFORMATIONS
• 1 : the entry of air (the fluid) in the engine takes place. The fluid is at the
ambient pressure.

• 1 – 2 : isentropic compression. At point 2 the fluid has a higher

temperature than its initial value.

• 2 – 3 : isobaric heat addition. Heat is added while pressure remains

constant. At point 3 the fluid has the highest temperature of the cycle.

• 3 – 4 : adiabatic expansion of the fluid, permits work to be obtained from

the high temperature fluid.

• 4 – 1 : rejection of the heat; it takes place at constant pressure and

permits the fluid to return to the initial conditions.

• Brayton’s cycle
15.1 Pag. 6
IDEAL BRAYTON’S CYCLE TRANSFORMATIONS

• Brayton’s cycle
15.1 Pag. 7
 IDEAL BRAYTON’S CYCLE : ENERGY EXCHANGES
• The net work the difference between the heat going into the cycle Qe and
the heat going out of the cycle Qu.

• The net work of a thermodynamic cycle can be visualized on a pressure‐

volume diagram as it corresponds to the area included by the cycle.

• When you know the net work, you can calculate the thermodynamic
efficiency of the cycle η .

• The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is the ratio between the net
work and the ingoing heat.

• Typically, the thermodynamic efficiency of an ideal Joule‐Brayton cycle is

about 60 percent.

• Brayton’s cycle
15.1 Pag. 8
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.02 Engine performance

15.2 Pag. 9
 GROSS THRUST
• Gross thrust may be defined as :

T G
 P  P  A  w v
0 j

• T = It is expressed in Newton
• Static pressure across the propelling nozzle(Pa)
• P0 = Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
• A = Propelling nozzle area (m^2)
• w = Mass flow (kg/s)
• vj = Jet velocity at propelling nozzle (m/s)

• Gross thrust
15.2 Pag. 10
 GROSS THRUST : FORMULA TERMS

• Gross thrust
15.2 Pag. 11
 NET THRUST

• The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the
difference between the gross thrust and the momentum drag MD:

MD Wv

T N
 P  P  A  w V  V 
0 j [N ]
• The speed of the jet vj must exceed the true airspeed of the aircraft v if
there is to be a net forward thrust on the airframe.

• When the aircraft is in parking condition the Net thrust is equal to the
Gross Thrust
• Net thrust
15.2 Pag. 12
 ENGINE EFFICIENCY

• The efficiency of conversion of fuel energy to kinetic energy is the thermal

efficiency ηt

• The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed

the propulsive efficiency ηp

• The overall efficiency is the product of thermal efficiency by the

propulsive efficiency η

• Engine efficiencies
15.2 Pag. 13
 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

2
   v 
work _ done
P
v v j
energy _ imparted _ to _ engine _ airflow

• vj is the speed of the air mass ejected through the nozzle.

• v is the speed of the air mass that enters the engine and is processed by
it.

• The propulsive efficiency is the ratio between the energy used for
propulsion divided by the available energy supplied by the engine

• Engine efficiencies
15.2 Pag. 14
 BY - PASS RATIO

• By‐pass ratio is the ratio between the mass flow of the secondary airflow
and that of the primary flow that goes through the engine.

• Depending on the by‐pass ratio, turbofan engines can be divided into

three categories:

• The low by‐pass ratio ≈ 1: the flow rate of the primary and
secondary flows is nearly the same

• The medium by‐pass ratio ≈ 3

• The high by‐pass ratio ≈ 5.

• By‐pass ratio and Engine Pressure Ratio

15.2 Pag. 15
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.03 Inlets

15.3 Pag. 16
 AIR INLETS

 Air inlets, also called diffusers or ram inlets, are the components of gas
turbine engines that convey the flow of air to the engine.

Their main functions are :

• To convey and decrease the speed of the air flow entering the engine

• To make a uniform flow upstream of the compressor

• To achieve initial pre‐compression of the flow of air then conveyed to the

compressor.

• Compressor inlet duct

15.3 Pag. 17
 SUBSONIC AIR INLETS
• Subsonic air inlets are divergent.

• The progressive increase in the cross section of the air inlet results in a
progressive increase in the static pressure, and, consequently, in a
decrease in dynamic pressure and in speed.

• The progressive increase in the cross‐section of the air inlet causes a

progressive increase in the static pressure

• Subsonic air inlet

15.3 Pag. 18
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.04 Compressor

15.3 Pag. 19
 COMPRESSOR TYPES

• The compressor is one of the primary components of a gas turbine. To

achieve a high efficiency of gas turbines, the air must be suitably
compressed before it enters the combustion chamber.

• The engine would generate NO useful work if the air is not compressed
prior to combustion

• The primary function of the compressor is to increase the pressure of the

air that flows into it through the air inlet, and to send that air to the
combustion chamber at a speed, temperature and pressure suitable for
efficient combustion.

• Axial and centrifugal types

15.4 Pag. 20
 AXIAL COMPRESSOR

 Axial compressors are called so because the air flow inside them flows in a
direction that is parallel to the compressor axis of rotation.

• They consist of a rotating disk fitted with suitably shaped blades.

• The stator is attached to the compressor casing in a fixed manner, hence it

does not move.

• Each stator is installed downstream of the related rotor, and receives the
high speed air fed from the rotor.

• Axial compressors
15.4 Pag. 21
 FAN BALANCING

 The presence of imbalance leads to excessive vibration and stress on the

engine shaft. In addition there is an increase of the noise produced by
fans

 Static balancing is the process that reduces this unbalanced condition, by

adding or removing mass from the fan

 Fans are dynamically balanced during manufacturing

• Fan balancing
15.4 Pag. 22
 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE

• If the operating conditions imposed upon the compressor blade becomes

too far from the design one, breakdown of airflow and aerodynamically
induced vibration will occur.

• The compressor blades may stall, because the angle of incidence of the
relative airflow on the blade is too high (called positive incidence stall) or
too low (in this case, it is called negative incidence stall).

• Typical symptoms of a compressor stall are abnormal noise from the

compressor with rpm fluctuations

• Causes and effects of compressor stall and surge

15.4 Pag. 23
 ANTI – STALL VALVE

 In the case of turboshaft engines, they are usually fitted with axi
centrifugal compressors

 To prevent compressor stall, it is necessary that some of the air fed by the
axial section is released overboard. A special valve, called anti‐stall valve
does this function

 The anti stall‐valve is installed in the inter stage section, which is the
section between the aft end of the compressor axial section and front end
of the centrifugal section

• Methods of air flow control: bleed valves, variable inlet guide vanes, variable stator vanes,
rotating stator blades
15.4 Pag. 24
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.05 Combustion section

15.5 Pag. 25
 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PARAMETERS
• The speed of the primary air flow must be very low to grant a good
combustion (1‐2 meters per seconds). If the speed is high the flame‐out
can happen. It has an active role in the combustion

• The speed of the secondary flow must be high enough to assure flame
stability and control its length (150‐170 meters per seconds)

• The remaining part of the air flow, called the tertiary airflow, is conveyed
to the area where the flow exits the combustion chamber. This air flow
cools the exhaust gases by mixing with them

• In the flame zone of the combustion chamber can be reached the

temperature of 1800 degrees Celsius

• Combustion chamber flows

15.5 Pag. 26
 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE

• A flame‐out can be caused by too high speed of the primary air flow

• Combustion chambers must be capable of allowing fuel to burn in an

efficient way over a wide range of operating conditions, without incurring
a large loss of pressure.

• In the combustion chamber performance overview, it is also necessary to

consider pollution emission.

• Pollutants are generally produced by two different conditions: inefficient

combustion and high temperature of the flame

• Combustion chamber flows

15.5 Pag. 27
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.06 Turbine section

15.6 Pag. 28
 TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS

• In jet engines the turbine provides the power necessary to drive the
compressor and the accessories.

• In turboprop and turboshaft engines, the turbine supplies also the power
necessary to drive the propeller, or the rotor.

• Like compressors, also the turbines consist of a fixed part, the stator, and
a rotating part, the rotor.

• The turbines installed in the modern aircraft jet engines are axial turbines.

• A turbine stage is in any case able to process pressure variations higher

than those an axial compressor stage is able to

• Characteristics of turbine
15.6 Pag. 29
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES
 The energy conversion in a turbine can occur in two manners :

 By action.

 By reaction.

• Action and reaction blades

15.6 Pag. 30
 DEGREE OF REACTION
• Degree of reaction: ratio between the change in static enthalpy across the
rotor and the change in enthalpy across the entire stage

• Degree of reaction = 0 impulse turbine, the turbine is an impulse turbine,

and there is no variation of enthalpy, hence of pressure, in the rotor

• Degree of reaction = between 0 and 1 impulse‐reaction turbine and

pressure variations occur in both the rotor and the stator

• Degree of reaction = 1 reaction turbine In this case, pressure variation

occurs only in the rotor, and the stator only changes the direction of the
hot gas flow
• Action and reaction blades
15.6 Pag. 31
 CREEP

• When turbine blades work over certain temperatures and high stress
levels each blade is liable for a plastic deformation, called “creep”.

• When a 0.2% plastic deformation has resulted, then the material is

assumed to have failed in creep.

• Creep is strictly related to the deformation of materials subjected to

constant stress at high temperature.

• Causes and effects of turbine blade stress and creep

15.6 Pag. 32
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.07 Exhaust

15.7 Pag. 33
 EXHAUST SYSTEM

• The exhaust system components are made of a steel alloy able to resist
high temperature

• The function of the exhaust system is to complete the expansion of the

gases, and release them to the atmosphere at the pressure, speed, and
direction that are correct for the application for which the engine is
destined

• Constructional features and principle of operation

15.7 Pag. 34
 GAS TURBINE NOISE LEVEL

• Gas turbine are source of significant noise emissions because of their

design features and operation

• The source of noise and its characteristics are tied to the high speed and
high temperature of the gases that flow inside the engine

• Jet noise levels vary as the sixth to eighth power of the jet exhaust
velocity and vary from the type of engine

• To reduce noise level, sound‐proofing panels are installed where possible

inside the structure.

• Engine noise reduction

15.7 Pag. 35
 GAS TURBINE NOISE LEVEL

• Engine noise reduction

15.7 Pag. 36
 THRUST REVERSERS
• Used in turbojet and turbofan engines

• In turboprop engines the reverse thrust is obtained reversing the pitch of

the propeller

• The result is a remarkable braking action

• Their use is subject to restrictions due to much noise emitted during their
operation.

• Thrust reversers
15.7 Pag. 37
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.08 Bearings and seals

15.8 Pag. 38
 FRICTION
 Friction is the force that opposes the sliding or rotation of a body to
another or through another one.

The type of relative motion:

• Two surfaces crawling over one another: sliding friction

• Two surfaces rolling over one another: rolling friction

• Introduction
15.8 Pag. 39
 COMMON TYPES OF BEARINGS

• Bearings let to create rolling friction rather than sliding friction between
two surfaces in contact.

• In gas turbine engine application, bearings may typically bear radial loads
and thrust loads.

• The motor bearing and those that support the two pulleys are subjected
to radial loads.

• Common types of bearings

15.8 Pag. 40
 THRUST BEARINGS
 Support loads directed in only one direction

• Common types of bearings

15.8 Pag. 41
 NEEDLE ROLLER BEARINGS
 Support high loads and high rotation speeds
 Large surface area in contact with the bearing outer surfaces.

• Common types of bearings

15.8 Pag. 42
 SEALS

 In a gas turbine engine installation there are commonly used the following
types of seals:

 Labyrinth seals

 Carbon seals

 Hydraulic seals

 Ring seals

 Brush seals

 Bellow seals
• Seals
15.8 Pag. 43
 CARBON SEALS

 Consist of a static ring of carbon that constantly rubs against a collar on a

rotating shaft. A series of springs are used to maintain the contact
between carbon and collar. Carbon seals are generally used in accessory
gear boxes and hydraulic pumps.

• Seals
15.8 Pag. 44
 LABYRINTH SEALS

 Labyrinth seals are typically used to retain oil in bearing chambers, and as
a metering device to internal airflows control.

 The rotating part of the seal has several knifes, which blades are aligned
with base surface steps

 This seals are used for bearing chamber sealing

• Seals
15.8 Pag. 45
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.09 Lubricant and fuels

15.9 Pag. 46
 PROPERTIES OF FUEL
 The primary chemical‐physical properties that differentiate the various
liquid fuels burned in engines are as follows:

• Specific density

• Heating value

• Volatility

• Viscosity

• Freezing point

• Flash point.

• Fuels – general requirements and properties

15.9 Pag. 47
 PROPERTIES OF FUEL
 Specific density: is the weight of a unit of volume of a given substances.

• Calorific value: quantity of heat generated by the full combustion of 1 kg

of fuel

• Volatility: is the ability of a fuel to change from liquid to gas

• Viscosity: is the property of resistance to flow of a fluid Viscosity is in an

inverse relationship with temperature. The fuel pumps can be damaged
by a too high viscosity of the fuel

• Flash point: is the lowest temperature at which a liquid fuel releases a

sufficient quantity of vapor to form a mixture with air that is flammable

• Fuels – general requirements and properties

15.9 Pag. 48
 GASOLINE

• Gasoline for aeronautical use is generally called aviation gasoline or avgas

• Avgas grades are defined by their octane rating

• The most commonly used fuel in aviation gasoline is AVGAS 100LL in

which the suffix 100LL tells that the octane number is 100 and the lead
content is low (LL=Low Lead)

• Gasoline
15.9 Pag. 49
 LUBRICANTS

• Lubricants prevent the direct contact between two moving surfaces

working together.

• Lubricants, therefore, increase the mechanical efficiency of a mechanism

and decrease the wear of the moving surfaces.

• When lubricants flow through an engine, they also cool it as they absorb
and remove the heat that combustion generates and that is transferred to
the engine components.

• Lubricants in the lubrication system carry out a flushing action.

• Lubricants
15.9 Pag. 50
 LUBRICANTS

 The primary chemical‐physical properties of the lubricants are:

• Viscosity: direct indication of its resistance to flow.

• Density: mass of the unit of volume of the lubricant

• Pour point: the lowest temperature at which a lubricant starts flowing

• Freezing point: temperature at which the lubricant ceases to flow

• Fire point: lowest temperature which a lubricant must reach to start and
sustain a continuous flame

• Lubricants
15.9 Pag. 51
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.10 Lubrication system

Pag. 52
15.10
 LUBRICATION SYSTEM
 The lubrication system has important tasks, as to :

• It is required to provide lubrication for gears, bearings and other

components

• Collecting foreign matter which, can cause rapid wear and failure.

• Protect the lubricated components which are manufactured from non‐

corrosion resistant materials.

• Remove heating from engine hot parts.

• Introduction
15.10 Pag. 53
 LUBRICATION SYSTEM
 In gas turbine engine, it is possible to install two basic lubrication
recirculatory systems:

• The pressure relief valve system.

• The full flow system.

 The main difference between the two different types of system is the
control of the oil flow to the bearings

• Introduction
15.10 Pag. 54
 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM
• The oil flowing to the bearing locations is controlled by limiting the feed
line pressure to a given value fixed in design phase

• The pressure regulation is obtained through a spring loaded valve that

permits oil to be directly returned from the pressure pump outlet to the
oil reservoir when the design fixed value is exceeded

• The regulation valve opens at a pressure corresponding to the engine idle

speed, in order to give a constant feed pressure over normal engine
operating range

• Pressure relief valve system

15.10 Pag. 55
 SPETROMETRIC OIL ANALYYSIS PROGRAM (SOAP)

• SOAP provides a warning of abnormal wear occurring

• SOAP involves periodic oil sample analysis where dedicated technicians

use spectrometric tools in order to determine the concentration of
particles of wear metals suspended in the oil

• SOAP process must be conducted in accordance with a detailed procedure

• spetrometric oil analyysis program (soap)

15.10 Pag. 56
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.11 Fuel systems

Pag. 57
15.11
 FADEC
• The FADEC, acronym of Full Authority Digital Engine Control, is a system that
consists of a digital computer and ancillary components that control an
aircraft’s engine it works in all the flight envelope, from engine starting to
engine shut‐off

• This electronic control system is designed to manage the fuel demand of the
engines according to the operating conditions.

•Engine emergency conditions cannot be controlled by the FADEC Electronic

Control Unit (ECU)

• fadec
15.11 Pag. 58
 FADEC
A FADEC system is typically composed by the following main elements:

• The Electronic Control Unit (ECU): it receives data from various sensors,
processes them, sends electrical signals to the command. ECU is fastened to
the engine frame.

• The Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU).

• Actuators and sensors, installed in the whole engine installation.
• The ECU optimizes operations based on data about atmospheric conditions.
• in a FADEC installation the fuel control system can operate in full‐automatic
mode, or also manually

• Engine instruments are fitted at the centre of the instrumental panel in the
cockpit • fadec
15.11 Pag. 59
 FADEC
• The throttle level position is sent to ECU via a dedicated device interfaced to the
throttle lever, named Throttle Control Unit (TRU).

• The TRU converts the mechanical position of the throttle into electrical signals.
• The HMU is the component of the FADEC which converts the signals coming from
the ECU in hydraulic pressure, adjusting the dosage of fuel to the engine ECU.

• The FADEC generally utilizes dual channel ECU units. Dual channel solution allows
having two separate and identical digital channels that are incorporated in order to
have high level redundancy

• FADEC can control engine overspeed

• fadec
15.11 Pag. 60
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.12 Air systems

Pag. 61
15.12
 SERVICES SUPPLY CONTROL

The bleed air system gets air from the pneumatic air sources and supplies
the air regulated in pressure and temperature through ducts to the user
systems.

• Typical values of temperature and pressure of the air bled for air system for
aircraft services supply are 200‐250°C and 275 kPa (40 PSI).

• Aircraft services supply control

15.12 Pag. 62
 ANTI ICING FUNCTION

• Engine anti ice system should be activated during ground operations or

flight when weather conditions indicate how likely the formation of ice

• The anti ice system may be activated in presence of rain, snow, fog or water
of ice on the runway

• In flight de icing system should be activated each time before the aircraft
enters in a cloud with an outside temperature ranging from +6 to ‐10°C

• in case of high value of humidity anti‐ice system may be always activated

• Engine anti – icing function

15.12 Pag. 63
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.13 Starting and ignition systems

Pag. 64
15.13
 INTRODUCTION

 The systems, which, operating together, permit turbine engines to be

started are as follows:

• The starting system

• The ignition system.

• Introduction
15.13 Pag. 65
 INTRODUCTION

• The starting system has the function to set the compressor into rotating by
driving it in the initial pahse

• The ingnition system operates inside the combustion chamber and provides
for the initial ignition of the flame inside the chamber

• Introduction
15.13 Pag. 66
 ENGINE STARTING
The engine starting consists of setting into rotation the engine compressor
• The starter provides for engine starting. The starter drives the compressor
through the gears included in the gearbox, to which both the starter and the
compressor are connected

• Starting
a turboshaft or turboprop engine, the starter drives both the
compressor and the turbine associated to it

•The starter must be capable of generating a power sufficient to overcome the

inertia and friction of the engine components

• Engine starting
15.13 Pag. 67
 ENGINE STARTING
The engine starting consists of setting into rotation the engine compressor
The most commonly used types of starters are :

• The electrical starters, which use electrical power.

• The pneumatic starters, which use air under pressure.

• The hydraulic starters, which use a hydraulic fluid under pressure

• The cartridge starters, which use an explosive cartridge.

• Engine starting
15.13 Pag. 68
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.14 Engine indication system

Pag. 69
15.14
 INTRODUCTION

The engine parameters indicating systems permit the engine parameters to be

monitored at any time.

The typical data that are of interest for the flight crew usually concern the
following:

• Temperature values
• Pressure values
• Torque
• Revolution Per Minutes (RPM) of rotating parts.

• Introduction
15.14 Pag. 70
 INTRODUCTION

The most commonly used definitions are: Electronic Information and Crew
Alerting System (EICAS) by Boeing, and Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitoring (ECAM) by Airbus.

 ECAM and EICAS displays are generally located at the centre of the
instrument panel

• Introduction
15.14 Pag. 71
 TERMOCOUPLE

 To measure the temperature inside the engine, probes are usually used
made up of a set of thermocouples.

A thermocouple works thanks to the interaction of two different metals,

welded on the two ends, called junctions.

By measuring the electromotive force near the cold junction, it is possible to

calculate the temperature of the hot junction

The hot junction is the heated junction of a thermocouple

The cold junction is the opposite of heated junction

• Temperature measurement
15.14 Pag. 72
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

 The temperatures that are conventionally measured in a turbine engine

depend basically on the position of the temperature sensors. They are:

• Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT): temperature inside the turbine at

two significant stages
• Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT): temperature at the turbine inlet
• Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT): temperature of the gases inside the
turbine
• Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT): temperature at the turbine outlet
• Jet Pipe Temperature (JPT): temperature at the exhaust nozzle inlet
• Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT): temperature at the exhaust gases

• Temperature measurement
15.14 Pag. 73
 ENGINE THRUST INDICATION

 In a turbine engine, the measurement of thrust gives a direct indication of

the performance of the engine.

• The thrust generated by a turbine engine is calculated by use of a

parameter called “Engine Pressure Ratio” (EPR).

• The EPR is the ratio between the Jet Pipe Pressure (JPP) and the pressure
at the engine inlet (Inlet Pressure, or IP).

• Engine thrust indication

15.14 Pag. 74
 EPR CALCULATION

• Engine thrust indication

15.14 Pag. 75
 OIL PRESSURE INDICATION

 The oil pressure indicating systems can be supplied either with direct
current electrical power or with alternating current electrical power

• In conventional layout cockpits, the oil pressure indicating systems are

usually coupled with the oil temperature indicating systems

• The old analog instruments have been replaced by digital indications on

electronic display

Bourdon’s tube gauge is a pressure indicator connected to the instrument

cockpit through electrical mechanism

• Oil pressure and temperature

15.14 Pag. 76
 Synchroscope

The propeller synchronization system is designed to bring all propeller

adjusting devices to the same RPM and thus reduce vibrations.
Propeller strong vibrations can cause nuisance for the passengers and damage
the structures and components

• Interaction between the propellers can be decreased by suitably

synchronizing and synchrophasing the propellers

• In some air vehicles the system includes an instrument installed in the

cockpit and called “synchroscope” and lets the flight crew do manual
adjustment.

• Vibration measurement and indication

15.14 Pag. 77
 BOURDON’S TUBE

 It is a metal tube that has a shape of a C and oval cross section

• One end of the tube is sealed, and the other is connected to the pressure
system

• A restrictor is installed in the open end of the tube to prevent damage in

case of rapid pressure changes

• Oil pressure and temperature

15.14 Pag. 78
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.15 Power augmentation
systems

Pag. 79
15.15
 INTRODUCTION
These systems are used under particular flight conditions in which a temporary
increase in performance is necessary, like, for instance, during takeoff or sharp
maneuvers.

 The power augmentation systems that are generally used in gas turbine
engines are :

• The afterburner.

• The water, or water‐methanol mixture, injection system.

• Operations and applications

15.14 Pag. 80
 AFTERBURNER
The afterburner is a thrust augmentation system that uses the unburned
oxygen contained in the flow of hot gases that exits the turbine.

 The operating principle of afterburner systems is based on the feeding of

nebulized fuel in the zone between the turbine and the exhaust nozzle.

• Because there is unburned oxygen in the air flow coming from the turbine
and the temperatures in the zone are high, the fed fuel burns
instantaneously.

• The function of afterburners is to increase aircraft performance

• In an afterburner the fuel is not burnt as efficiently as in the combustion

chamber

• Afterburner systems
15.14 Pag. 81
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.16 Turbo – prop engines

Pag. 82
15.16
FREE TURBINE AND GEAR COUPLE TURBINES
 A turbo‐propeller engine consists of a gas turbine engine that drives a
propeller.

• Most of the energy of the gas flow is used to drive the propeller and
compressor, while the remaining energy provides a very small amount of
residual thrust.

 There are two basic types of turbo‐prop engines:

• Single shaft engines (fixed shaft engines).

• Free‐turbine engines (split shaft engines).

The main difference between single shaft and free‐turbine engine is the power
transmission to the propeller

• Gas coupled, free turbine and gear couple

15.16 Pag. 83
turbines
 FREE TURBINE

 In a free‐turbine engine configuration, the propeller is driven by a

dedicated turbine through reduction gearing.

• A typical free power‐turbine engine has two independent counter‐rotating

turbines :

1. Gas generator turbine drives the compressor.

2. The Power turbine drives the propeller through the reduction gearbox.

• Gas coupled, free turbine and gear couple

turbines 15.16 Pag. 84
 REDUCTION GEARS

 In addition to the reduction gears and the accessory drives, the reduction
gear assembly includes the following units :

• The propeller brake: to prevent dangerous windmilling of a feathered

propeller

• The Negative Torque System (NTS): to prevent excessive propeller drag

• A safety coupling: disconnects gearbox from the power section in case of

exterme drag conditions

• The reduction gear assembly includes an independent lubrication system

that comprises pressure and scavenge pumps.

• Reduction gears
15.16 Pag. 85
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.17 Turboshaft engines

Pag. 86
15.17
 ARRANGEMENTS

 The turboshaft engine is a gas turbine engine able to supply mechanical

power through a shaft.

• The most important application of turboshaft engine is in the helicopters

where turboshafts have now almost completely replaced piston engines.

In helicopter, there are two basic arrangements of turboshaft engines:

• Direct‐drive engines.

• Free‐turbine engines.

• Arrangements
15.17 Pag. 87
 REDUCTION GEARS

• Gearbox installed on turbo shaft engines includes reduction gears that

allow the engine shaft and power shaft to spin at different rates

• Some engines incorporate a first reduction stage in the gearbox, that

operates a first partial speed reduction

• The reduction gears allow the engine shaft and power shaft to spin at
different rates

• Drive systems, reduction gearing and

couplings 15.17 Pag. 88
 DRIVE SYSTEM

 typical integrated two‐stage reduction gearbox for turboshafts brings the

output speed at about 6000 RPM, compared to a power turbine shaft
speed of about 33000.

 The overall ratio of reduction in these cases is typically equal to about 5‐6
to 1

• Arrangements
15.17 Pag. 89
 TWIN PACK

• In two‐engine installations, a typical configuration is the Twin Pack.

• In this case, the engines are coupled through a common gearbox, that has
the two engine power shafts as input and an unique shaft as output.

• Each input shaft is equipped with a free wheel.

• In a Twin Pack configuration, the installation of a free wheel is always

necessary, in order to avoid that, during starting or in emergency
condition, a shut‐off engine could be driven by the operating one.

• Drive systems, reduction gearing and

15.17 Pag. 90
couplings
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.18 Auxiliary Power Units (APU)

Pag. 91
15.18
 PURPOSE OF APU
 The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is a self‐contained unit that makes an
aircraft independent of external pneumatic and electrical power supplies.

 The APU air inlet is usually placed at the bottom of the fuselage

The APU is principally used:

• On the ground, to supply bleed air for engine starting,

• For supply the air conditioning system and to supply electrical power
when the aircraft is parked.

• The APU can also be used during takeoff, in order to supply bleed air for
air conditioning.

• Purpose of APUs
15.18 Pag. 92
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF APU
 The basic element of an APU is a small single‐shaft gas turbine engine

 The basic elements of an APU are the following :

• A compressor.

• A combustion chamber.

• A turbine.

• An accessory gearbox.

 After starting phase, APU stabilizes and Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
may vary from 280°C to 350°C

• APU operation
15.18 Pag. 93
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.19 Powerplant installations

Pag. 94
15.19
 POWERPLANTS INSTALLATION

 In general, gas turbine engine power plants can be installed in three ways:

• Through pod installations attached to the wings by pylons.

• Through pod installations attached to the sides of the rear fuselage by

short stub wings.

• Buried in the fuselage or wings.

Some aircraft uses a combination of rear fuselage and tail mounted power
plants, others, have wing‐mounted pod installations with a third engine buried
in the tail structure.

• Introduction
15.19 Pag. 95
 NOISE SOURCES
 In aviation field, the most significant sources of noise originate:

• In the fan.

• In the compressor.
interaction of pressure fields and turbulent wakes
• In the turbine.

• In the exhaust jet.

violent turbulent mixing of the exhaust gases with the
atmosphere

• The following graphics shows a brief simplified analysis of noise sources

and related emissions of various gas turbine engine types.

• Acoustic panels
15.19 Pag. 96
 ACOUSTIC PANELS : MATERIALS
 Various noise absorbing lining materials are used on jet engines, and they
can be classified in two main categories:

• Lightweight composite materials, that are used in the lower temperature

regions.

• Fibrous‐metallic materials that are used in the higher temperature

regions.

• Acoustic panels
15.19 Pag. 97
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.20 Fire protection system

Pag. 98
15.20
 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
 A modern engine fire protection system includes the following elements:

• Detection and warning devices.

• Fire extinguishing devices.
• System testing devices.

• Operation of detection and extinguish

15.20 Pag. 99
systems
 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
 Typically, a continuous‐loop detection system consist of a very small cross‐
section Inconel tube attached to the structure at several points. The tube
length can vary between 30 centimeters and many meters

 Fenwal system and the Kiddle system.

• In Fenwal system. The ceramic bead includes a thermistor. The sensing

system is supplied with 28 Volt DC electrical power

• In the Kiddle continuous‐loop detection system, two wires are buried in a

ceramic bead, within an Inconel tube (in the same way of Fenwal system).

• Energy fire detection system

15.20 Pag. 100
 FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

• Every fire extinguisher used on board of aircrafts is designed to remove

oxygen, by use of an inert gas that does not support combustion.

• The most widely used fire suppressants used up to mid‐nineties were

halogenated hydrocarbons such as bromo – trifluoro methane,
commercially called Halon (Halon 1301).

• Nowadays, the extinguishing agent universally used for all Engines and
APUs fitted to civil transport aircraft remains only Halon 1301

• Fire extinguishing
15.20 Pag. 101
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.21 Engine monitoring and
ground operation

Pag. 102
15.21
 START UP PROCEDURE
 During the starting cycle, when a predetermined point is reached, the high
pressure fuel shut – off valve is open to let the fuel to pass to the fuel
spray nozzles.

• During the engine light‐up period and the subsequent acceleration to idle
speed, the engine exhaust gas temperature must be carefully monitored.

• If the temperature limitation appears likely to be exceeded, the shut‐off

valve must be closed

• In case of a turbo‐prop aircraft, when the engine is being started, the

propeller must be set to the correct starting pitch, as recommended by
engine manufacturer

• Procedures for starting and ground run ‐ up

15.21 Pag. 103
 BOROSCOPES
 The boroscope contains its own light source throughout the engine
internal passages.

 A boroscope is a monocular device, and it is extremely difficult to

estimate size or distance.

 The field‐of‐view on a boroscope is the cone coming from the boroscope

tip, so that anything within the cone is visible.

 The field‐of‐view is dictated by the distance from the distal end of the
boroscope to the subject being inspected

 By positioning the remote light adjacent to a vane surface, deposit build‐

up conditions can be seen

• Boroscope monitoring
15.21 Pag. 104
 GAS TURBINE ENGINE MAINTENANCE

 Inspection related to gas turbine engines can be divided in two main

categories:

• Cold section inspection (air intake and the whole compressor assembly).

• Hot section inspection (combustion chambers, the turbine assemblies and

the exhaust section).

• Inspection of engines and components to criteria, tol and data

15.21 Pag. 105
 Gas turbine engine
• 15.22 Engine storage and
preservation

Pag. 106
15.22
 DRYING AGENTS
 Drying agents, also called dessicants, are widely used in engine
preservation process because they can absorb moisture present in the
atmosphere.

 The most used dessicants in engine preservation is the silica gel.

 Silica gel is a solid, granular, vitreous, highly porous form of silica made
synthetically from sodium silicate.

 In engine preservation application, silica gel is usually mixed with cobalt

chloride, in order to obtain a visual indication of the relative humidity in
the air inside the engine.

 In this case, the gel appears bright blue in case of low humidity level.

• Drying agents
15.21 Pag. 107
 SILICA GEL ADDED WITH COBALT CHLORIDE

• Drying agents
15.21 Pag. 108
 CORROSION PREVENTION ACTION
 Increasing humidity level, bright blue clears up, to take on the color of
lavender in the presence of humidity above 40%.

 following changes appears to different shades of pink, till becoming

completely white if humidity level achieves a percentage of 60%.

 In order to obtain a corrosion prevention action, silica gel bags are usually
placed inside the air intakes and exhaust pipes of engines, as well as every
accessible recess of the engine to be preserved.

 In case where the moisture indicator has become pink, it is necessary to

restore the primitive conditions of the indicator or the related desiccant
bag.

• Drying agents
15.21 Pag. 109