Turbomachinery Summary Note

Turbo machines: is a device that exchanges energy with a fluid using continuously flowing fluid
and rotating blades due to dynamic action and results in the change of pressure a momentum of
the fluid.
In turbomachines, mechanical energy is transferred into or out of the system in a steady flow
processes.
Examples are: Wind turbines, Water turbines, Aircraft engines.

Figure 1.1 Principal components of Turbomachine

The following are the principal components of turbomachine: (i) Rotor, (ii) Stator and (iii)
Shaft.
Rotor is a rotating element carrying the rotor blades or vanes. Rotor is also known by the name’s
runner, impellers etc. depending upon the particular machine. Here energy transfer occurs between
the flowing fluid and the rotating element due to the momentum exchange between the two.
Stator is a stationary element carrying the guide vanes or stator blades. Stator blades are also
known by guide blades or nozzle depending upon the particular machine. These blades usually
control the direction of fluid flow during the energy conversion process.
Shaft is transmitting power into or out of the machine depending upon the particular machine. For
power generating machines, it may call as output shaft and for power absorbing machines; it may

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called as input shaft.
Turbomachines are broadly classified into power generating, power absorbing and power
transmitting turbomachines.
In power-generating turbomachines, fluid energy (decrease in enthalpy) is converted into
mechanical energy which is obtained at the shaft output, whereas in power-absorbing
turbomachines, mechanical energy which is supplied at the shaft input is converted to fluid energy
(increase in enthalpy). The power-transmitting turbomachines are simply transmitting power from
input shaft to an output shaft. That means, these devices act merely as an energy transmitter to
change the speed and torque on the driven member as compared with the driver.
Again power-generating and power-absorbing turbomachines are classified by the direction of
the fluid flow as: (i) axial flow, (ii) radial flow and (iii) mixed flow. In the axial flow and radial
flow turbomachines, the major flow directions are approximately axial and radial respectively,
while in the mixed flow machine, the flow enters axially and leaves radially or vice versa. A radial
flow machine may also be classified into radial inward flow (centripetal) or radial outward flow
(centrifugal) types depending on whether the flow is directed towards or away from the shaft axis.
Power generating turbomachine is one which converts fluid energy in the form of kinetic
energy or pressure energy into mechanical energy in terms of rotating shaft. Turbines are the best
example for this type. Power absorbing turbomachine is one which converts mechanical energy
into fluid energy. Compressors, fans, pumps and blowers are the best example for this type.
Power transmitting is one which is used to transmit power from driving shaft to drive shaft
with the help of fluid. There is no mechanical connection between the two shafts. The best
examples for this type are hydraulic coupling and hydraulic torque converter.
Application of turbomachines
❖ Electricity generation (Hydro Turbines, Steam and Gas Turbines, Wind Turbines)
❖ Jet engine (Multi-stage Turbines and Multi-stage Compressors coupled)
❖ Industrial and miscellaneous service (Air Compressors in Pneumatic systems, pumps in
hydraulic and cooling systems and also in steam generating cycle)
❖ HVAC (Pumps(>3bar), blowers (>0.7and<3bar) bar, fans (<0.7 bar))
❖ Refrigerators (centrifugal compressor)
❖ Agriculture (pumps-fluid transfer)
❖ Automobiles (Radiator i.e., air fan, Turbocharger i.e., energy recovery unit)

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 ❖ Propellers in ships
Comparison with Positive Displacement Machines:

Parameters Positive-displacement Machine Turbomachine

Simple
Examples

Action It involves a change in volume or a It involves change in pressure and momentum of

displacement of fluid. the fluid.

There is a positive confinement of the fluid There is no positive confinement of the fluid at
in the system. any point in the system

Operation It involves a reciprocating motion of the It involves a purely rotary motion of

mechanical element mechanical element

Stability vibrations are more. Hence low speeds are balanced and vibrations eliminated. Hence high
Features adopted. speeds can be adopted.

Heavy foundations are required. Light foundations sufficient.

Mechanical design is complex Design is simple.

Weight per unit output is more. Weight per unit output is less.

Overall High efficiency because of static energy Efficiency is low because of dynamic energy
Efficiency transfer. transfer.

Volumetric Low fluid handling capacity per unit High fluid handling capacity per unit weight
efficiency weight of machine. of machine.

Fluid No such serious problems are encountered. Causes cavitation, Surging or pulsation: These
Impact factors deteriorate the performance of the
machine.

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Examples Rotary & Reciprocating Pumps, I.C Hydraulic turbines, Gas turbines, Steam
engines etc. Turbines etc.

Classification of Turbo machine:

1. Based on energy transfer
a) Energy is given by fluid to the rotor - Power generating turbo machine
Example: Turbines
b) Energy given by the rotor to the fluid – Power absorbing turbo machine
Example: Pumps, blowers and compressors
2. Based on fluid flowing in turbo machine
a) Water
b) Air
c) Steam
d) Hot gases
e) Liquids like petrol etc.
3. Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes or blades (with reference to
the axis of shaft rotation)
a) Axial flow – Axial pump, compressor or turbine
b) Mixed flow – Mixed flow pump, Francis turbine
c) Radial flow – Centrifugal pump or compressor
d) Tangential flow – Pelton water turbine
4. Based on condition of fluid in turbo machine
a) Impulse type (constant pressure) Example: Pelton water turbine
b) Reaction type (variable pressure) Example: Francis reaction turbines
5. Based on position of rotating shaft
a) Horizontal shaft Example: Steam turbines
b) Vertical shaft Example: Kaplan water turbines
c) Inclined shaft Example: Modern bulb micro

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Dimensionless parameters and their significance,
Dimensional Analysis: The dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique deals with the
dimensions of the quantities involved in the process. Basically, dimensional analysis is a method
for reducing the number and complexity of experimental variable that affect a given physical
phenomenon, by using a sort of compacting technique. The three primary purposes of dimensional
analysis are:
1. To generate non-dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments and in the
reporting of experimental results.
2. To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance.
3. To predict the relationship between the parameters.

Fundamental Quantities of Dimensional Analysis: Mass (M), length(L), time (T) and
temperature (ɵ) are called fundamental quantities since there is no direct relation between these
quantities. There are seven basic quantities in physics namely, mass, length, time, electric
current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of a substance.
Secondary Quantities or Derived Quantities: The quantities derived from fundamental quantities
are called derived quantities or secondary quantities. Examples: area, volume, velocity, force,
acceleration, etc.

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Basic Definitions:
Enthalpy:
Enthalpy is a property of a thermodynamic system, and is defined as the sum of the system's
internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. H = E + PV or h = E + PV.
Entropy:
a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's thermal energy for
conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted as the degree of disorder or randomness in
the system. "The second law of thermodynamics says that entropy always increases with time"
Isentropic Process: In thermodynamics, an isentropic process is an idealized thermodynamic
process that is both adiabatic and reversible. The work transfers of the system are frictionless, and
there is no net transfer of heat or matter. Such an idealized process is useful in engineering as a
model of and basis of comparison for real processes. This is the reason it is called as isentropic
(entropy does not change).
Reversible Process: In thermodynamics, a reversible process is a process whose direction can be
reversed to return the system to its original state by inducing infinitesimal changes to some
property of the system's surroundings. Throughout the entire reversible process, the system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings
Isothermal Process: In thermodynamics, an isothermal process is a type of thermodynamic
process in which the temperature of the system remains constant: ΔT = 0.
Isobaric Process: In thermodynamics, an isobaric process is a type of thermodynamic process in
which the pressure of the system stays constant: ΔP = 0.
Isochoric Process: In thermodynamics, an isochoric process, also called a constant-volume
process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, i.e., ΔV=0.
Adiabatic Process: In thermodynamics, an Adiabatic process is a type of thermodynamic process
that occurs without transferring heat or mass between the thermodynamic system and its
environment. An adiabatic process transfers energy to the surroundings only as work.
Polytropic Process: A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that obeys the relation:
𝒑𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪 where (p) is the pressure, (V) is volume, (n) is the polytropic index, and C is a constant.
The polytropic process equation can describe multiple expansion and compression processes
which include heat transfer.

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Significance of Specific Speed
In incompressible flow pumps, it possible to guess the approximate rotor shape from the specific
speed. Small specific speed impellers have narrow and small openings whereas large specific speed
impellers have wide openings and are expected to have large flow rates. Thus, a centrifugal pump
has a nearly pure radial outward flow has the small inlet area. The flow rate is small because of
the small inlet area but the head against which it works is high. So, for the centrifugal pumps
specific speed is small. Thus, to accommodate the large flow a relatively large impeller is needed
for centrifugal pumps (𝐻 ∝ 𝐷2 ). A volute or mixed-flow pump has a bigger opening because of its
mixed flow characteristic though the head developed is not as large as that of the centrifugal pump.
Its specific speed is higher than that of the centrifugal pump. At the extreme end is the axial-flow
pump, which has a relatively large flow area and therefore a considerable volume flow rate. The
head it develops is therefore small compared with that of radial-flow pumps. Its specific speed is
very large.

Impeller shape variation with specific speed in pumps.

Efficiency variation with specific speed in turbines

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Similarly, the specific speed determines the approximate shapes of the rotors as well. Consider for
example the Pelton wheel which is a low specific speed, high head turbine. The volumetric flow
rate is small since the turbine utilizes one or more nozzles from which the fluid emerges as jets.
The Francis turbine covers a wide range of specific speeds and is suitable for intermediate heads.
The Kaplan turbine operates at low heads and need large fluid flow rates to produce reasonable
amounts of power. Their specific speeds are therefore high. Generally, specific speed is used as a
guide to select a type of turbine under given condition of head and flow (i.e., site conditions).
Therefore, such a thumb rule gives rise to a maximum efficiency. Thus, when specific speed is
very high, Kaplan turbine is best selection to give rise to very high efficiency. When specific speed
is very low, higher efficiencies are possible only if Pelton wheel is selected.
Losses of Turbomachines
1. Internal Losses: Losses which take place in the inner passages of the machine and directly
connected with rotor or flow of the medium and which are adding heat to the flow medium
2. External losses: Losses which appear outside of the inner passages of the casing and which
do not transfer the generated heat directly into the flow medium
Due to the inner losses, the total energy exchange between the rotor and the flow medium is altered.
In the case of the working machine more energy has to be exchanged
In the case of the power machine less energy is exchanged than by a machine under the same
condition but without losses.
The losses can be: Specific Energy Losses
Volume/mass-flow losses
Hydraulic Loss Zh
• It is a specific Energy Loss due to friction, separation, contraction, diffusion, eddy formation
etc. while the flow passes through the main flow passages from entrance to discharge flange
of the machine.
• Hydraulic power losses can involve: Impeller power loss– inefficiency in the impeller design
• Leakage power loss-some flow evades the impeller
• Casing power loss-friction with casing

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Disc Friction Loss Zr
• The surface of the rotor which does not form the main flow passage is surrounded by a fluid
medium
• While the rotor rotates, a friction is generated between this rotor surface and its surrounding
fluid medium.
• The needed power to overcome this friction can be written as:
Where: Zr = disc friction spec. energy loss and is involved with ρV
External Losses
• All external losses due to friction in the bearings, sealings and due to fluid friction at the outside
rotating surfaces of the machine can be counted together as a power loss:
• External losses also include losses from auxiliary equipment’s (oil pump, bearing lubrication
speed regulators) since they are mostly driven directly by the shaft of the turbomachine
• Losses in turbomachines occur due to

– Mechanical losses: bearing friction, windage (frictional force between the rotating shaft and
air)
– Fluid-rotor losses: friction between the blade and the fluid

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If the medium is already a gas/steam, the phenomenon that the flow medium will change from the
liquid of the gas phase does to occur, thus no cavitation has to be considered.
For lower temperature, the sonic velocity is low. In order to avoid supersonic and sonic flows the
flow velocity has to lower. But the flow velocity may be desired to be higher.
Sonic velocity (velocity of the sound) is referred to the speed of propagation of pressure wave in
the medium. The velocity of the sound in a fluid at a local temperature T for an isentropic flow is
given by

Where γ, R and T are the ratio of specific heats, characteristic gas constant and the local
temperature of the fluid respectively. At sea level the velocity of sound in air is given as 340m/s.
Above sonic velocity (supersonic flow) there is occurrence of shock waves which represent losses.
Mach number is defined as the ratio of local velocity of fluid (V) to the sonic velocity (c) in
that fluid. Thus

The fluid flow can be generally classified into subsonic flow, sonic flow and supersonic flow
based on the value of Mach number.
Subsonic flow: If the Mach number is less than 1, then that type of flow is called subsonic flow,
in which the velocity of the fluid is less than the velocity of the sound in that medium.
Sonic flow: If the Mach number is equal to 1, then that type of flow is called sonic flow, in which
the velocity of the fluid is same as the velocity of the sound in that medium.
Supersonic flow: If the Mach number is greater than 1, then that type of flow is called supersonic
flow, in which the velocity of the fluid is greater than the velocity of the sound in that medium.

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ENERGY TRANSFER IN TURBOMACHINES
Euler’s Turbine Equation:
The figure below shows the rotor of a generalized turbomachine with axis of rotation 0-0, with an
angular velocity ω. The fluid enters the rotor at radius r1 with an absolute velocity V1 and leaves
the rotor at radius r2 with an absolute velocity V2.

Fluid flow through a rotor of a turbomachine

Assumptions
i. Fluid flow through the turbomachine is steady flow.
ii. Mass flow rate is constant and the state of the fluid doesn’t vary with time.
iii. Rate of energy transfer at the rotor is constant.
iv. Losses due to leakage are neglected.
The absolute velocity of the fluid can be resolved in to:
a. Axial component (Va), which is parallel to the axis of rotation of the rotor.
b. Radial component (Vm), which is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the rotor.
c. Tangential component (Vu), which is along the tangential direction of the rotor.

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The only velocity component which changes the angular momentum of the rotor is the tangential
component (Vu) and by Newton’s second law of motion forces applied on the rotor is equal to rate
of change of momentum of the fluid.
Force applied on the rotor = Rate of change of momentum

But, Torque = Force × Radius

But, Rate of energy transfer = Torque × Angular velocity

Then,
But, tangential velocity of rotor
Then,
Energy transfer per unit mass flow of fluid is

The equation is the general Euler’s equation for all kind of turbomachines
For power generating turbomachine energy transfer is positive (i.e., U1Vu1>U2Vu2)
Therefore, U1Vu1−U2Vu2
For power absorbing turbomachine energy transfer is negative (i.e., U2Vu2>U1Vu1)
Therefore, U2Vu2−U1Vu1
Note: (a) The change in magnitude of axial velocity components give rise to an axial thrust which
must be taken up by the thrust bearings. The change in magnitude of radial velocity components
give rise to a radial thrust which must be taken up by the journal bearing. Neither of these forces
causes any angular rotation nor has any effect on the torque exerted on the rotor.
(b) The Euler’s turbine equation may be used for the flow of fluids like water, steam, air and
combustion products, since their viscosities are reasonably small. For fluids of very large viscosity

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like heavy oils or petroleum products, errors in the calculated torque and power output may result
due to: (i) non-uniformity of velocity profiles at the inlet and the exit and
(ii) the boundary layers near the housing and the stator surfaces. Both these tend reduce the
magnitude of the torque in 0 with the ideal torque predicted by Euler’s turbine equation.
General characteristics features of Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines.
Pelton wheel turbine is an impulse turbine. These turbines have usually high head in the range of
200 m to 1700 m and these machines require low discharge, hence the specific speed is low in the
range of 10 to 30. In this type of turbine water strikes the runner along the tangential direction,
these turbines are also known as peripheral (tangential) flow turbines.
Francis turbine is a reaction turbine. These turbines have usually medium head in the range of 50m
to 200m and these machines require medium discharge, hence the specific speed is medium in the
range of 60 to 400. In this type of turbine water enters radially and leaves axially or vice versa,
these turbines are also known as mixed flow turbines.
Kaplan turbine is also a reaction turbine. These turbines have usually very low head in the range
of 2.5m to 50m and these machines require high discharge, hence the specific speed is high in the
range of 300 to 1000. In this type of turbine water flow through the runner along the axial direction,
these turbines are also known as axial flow turbines.
Heads and Efficiencies of Hydraulic Turbines
Gross head (Hg): It is the head of water available for doing useful work. It is the difference
between the head race and tail race level when there is no flow. It is also known as static head.
Net head (H): It is the head available at the inlet of the turbine. It is obtained by considering all
losses, like loss in kinetic energy of water due to friction, pipe bends and fittings. If hf is the total
loss, then net head is given by H=Hg-Hf
Volumetric efficiency (ηv): It is the ratio of the quantity of water striking the runner of the turbine
to the quantity of water supplied at the turbine inlet.
𝑄 − ∆𝑄
𝜂𝑣 =
𝑄
Where ΔQ is the amount of water that slips directly to the tail race

Hydraulic efficiency (ηH): It is the ratio of work done by the runner to the energy available at the
inlet of the turbine.

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Where H is net head and hL = (hLr+hLc) is head loss in the runner and casing.
Mechanical efficiency (ηm): It is the ratio of shaft work output by the turbine to the work done by
the runner.

Overall efficiency (ηo): It is the ratio of shaft work output by the turbine to the energy available at
the inlet of the turbine.
In turbomachinery, a velocity triangle or a velocity diagram is a triangle representing the various
components of velocities of the working fluid in a turbomachine. Velocity triangles may be drawn
for both the inlet and outlet sections of any turbomachine. The vector nature of velocity is utilized
in the triangles, and the most basic form of a velocity triangle consists of the tangential velocity,
the absolute velocity and the relative velocity of the fluid making up three sides of the triangle.
Consider turbomachine consisting of a stator and a rotor. The three points that are very much
important to draw the velocity triangles are entry to the stator, the gap between the stator and rotor
and exit from the rotor.
These points labelled 3, 1 and 2 respectively in figure below and combination of rotor and stator
is called stage in turbomachines.
The fluid enters the stator at point 3 but as the stator is not moving there is no relative motion
between the incoming flow and the stator so there is no velocity triangle to draw at this point. At
point 1 the flow leaves the stator and enters the rotor. Here there are two flow velocities, the
absolute velocity of the flow (V) viewed from the point of view of stationary stator and relative
velocity of flow (Vr) viewed from the point of view of moving rotor. The rotor is moving with a
tangential velocity of magnitude U. At point 2 the flow leaves the rotor and exits the stage. Again,
there are two flow velocities, one by viewing from the moving rotor and another by viewing from
outside the rotor where there is no motion.

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 Velocity triangles for a turbomachine
The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the rotor are utmost important in deciding the size
of the turbomachine for the given power output.
Impulse and Reaction Turbomachines: In general, turbomachines may be classified into impulse
and reaction types, depending upon the type of energy exchange that occurs in the rotor blades. An
impulse stage is one in which the static pressure at the rotor inlet is the same as that at the rotor
outlet (i.e., Vr1=Vr2 and U1=U2). In an impulse stage, the energy exchange is purely due to change
in the direction of the fluid (i.e., change in dynamic pressure) and there is a negligible change in
the magnitude of velocity as fluid flows over the rotor blades. The force exerted on the blades is
due to change in the direction of the fluid during flow over the moving blade.
If at the inlet of turbine, the energy available is only kinetic energy, the turbine is known as Impulse
turbine. As the water flows over the vanes, the pressure is atmospheric from inlet to outlet of the
turbine. If at the inlet of the turbine, the water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy,
the turbine is known as Reaction turbine. As the water flows through runner, the water is under
pressure and the pressure energy goes on changing in to kinetic energy. The runner is completely
enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner and casing is completely full of water.
If the water flows along the tangent of runner, the turbine is known as Tangential flow turbine. If
the water flows in the radial direction through the runner, the turbine is called Radial flow turbine.
If the water flows from outward to inwards radially, the turbine is known as Inward radial flow
turbine, on the other hand, if the water flows radially from inward to outwards, the turbine is
known as outward radial flow turbine. If the water flows through the runner along the direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner, the turbine is called axial flow turbine. If the water

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flows through the runner in the radial direction but leaves in the direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the runner, the turbine is called mixed flow turbine.
A reaction stage is one where a change in static pressure occurs during flow over each rotor stage.
In a reaction stage, the direction and magnitude of the relative velocity are changed by shaping the
blade passage as a nozzle (or as a diffuser, depending upon whether it is generating or absorbing
power). The force exerted on the blades is due to both changes in magnitude and in direction of
the fluid velocity.
Degree of Reaction (R): The degree of reaction is a parameter which describes the relation between
the energy transfer due to static pressure change and the energy transfer due to dynamic pressure
change. The degree of reaction is the ratio of energy transfer due to the change in static pressure
in the rotor to total energy transfer due to the change in total pressure in the rotor.

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