UNIT-I

1. OSI reference model.

2. Differences between OSI and TCP/IP reference model
3. Types of Topologies and Types of Networks
4. Guided Media – Twisted pair, Coaxial, fiber optic
5. Unguided media – radio waves, micro waves, infrared
UNIT-II
6. Data Link layer design issues – Framing, Error control and Flow control
7. Error detection and correction – CRC method, one’s complement internet checksum.
8. Elementary data link protocols –simplex, simplex stop and wait and simplex protocol for noisy
channel
9. Sliding window protocols – one bit, Go back N, Selective repeat
10. HDLC and PPP
UNIT-III
11. Multiple Access protocols – Aloha (Pure, Slotted) and CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA
12. Controlled Access- Reservation, Polling, Token Passing
13. FDMA / TDMA / CDMA
14. Ethernet & Ethernet Protocol and Standards / Fast Ethernet / Gigabit Ethernet
UNIT-4
15. Tunneling, Fragmentation
16. IP address, IP protocol, IPV4 Header, IPV6 Header, IPV4 VS IPV6.
17. Internet Control Protocols: ICMP, ARP, DHCP
UNIT-V
18. UDP & TCP segment header, applications, services.
19. TCP – flow control, error control and congestion control
20. Differences between connection oriented and connection less services
21. HTTP, Email and Architecture, Local vs Remote login
22. DNS, SNMP
UNIT-1
Lack of OSI Model Success:
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, while a valuable framework for
understanding networking, did not gain widespread practical success due to its
complexity and the emergence of the simpler TCP/IP model.
 The OSI model, with its seven layers, was considered too theoretical and less
practical for real-world networking compared to the TCP/IP model.
Complexity: The OSI model's seven layers and associated rules made it more
difficult to implement and understand compared to the simpler, four-layer TCP/IP
model.
Theoretical vs. Practical: The OSI model was more focused on theoretical concepts,
while the TCP/IP model was designed with practical networking in mind.
Lack of Adoption: The complexity and lack of practical applicability led to slower
adoption of the OSI model in real-world networking environments.
TCP/IP's Dominance: The TCP/IP model, which was already widely used by the
time the OSI model was finalized, became the dominant model for networking,
particularly on the internet.
Committees and Standardization: The development of the OSI model was
hampered by excessive committee input, leading to a finalized model that was never
fully implemented.
Practical Networking’s: The early Internet prioritized practicality and speed over
strict standardization, which favored the simpler TCP/IP model.
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Internet History:
 The history of computer networks and the internet is a story of interconnected
developments, starting with the early concepts of timesharing and packet switching
in the 1960s, leading to the birth of ARPANET in 1969 and the adoption of TCP/IP
in 1983, which is widely considered the official birth of the internet.
Early Developments (1960s):
 Timesharing: In the early 1960s, the concept of timesharing allowing multiple
users to access a single computer simultaneously through terminals, the way for
networked environments.
 Packet Switching: Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed the
concept of packet switching, a crucial technology for efficiently transmitting data
over networks.
 ARPANET: The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET),
funded by the US Department of Defense, was created in 1969 as the first widely
used computer network, using packet switching to connect researchers at different
universities and research institutions.
The Rise of Networking (1970s - 1980s):
 Email: Ray Tomlinson developed the first email program on ARPANET in 1971,
a significant step towards communication and collaboration.
 ALOHA: ALOHA, a UHF wireless packet network in Hawaii, connected the
islands and demonstrated the feasibility of wireless networking.
 TCP/IP: Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf developed the TCP/IP protocol suite, which
became the foundation for modern internet communication.
The Internet's Growth (1990s - Present):
 The World Wide Web: The World Wide Web, invented by Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN in 1989, introduced a graphical interface and made the internet accessible
to a wider audience.
 Commercialization: The internet began to be commercialized in the 1990s, with
the rise of web servers, browsers like Netscape, and e-commerce.
 Growth of Networks: Ethernet became the LAN technology, and various
advancements like full-duplex and gigabit Ethernet.
 Wireless Networks: The introduction of Wi-Fi standards in the late 1990s
revolutionized wireless networking, enabling mobile devices to connect to the
internet.
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UNIT-4
How Network Are Different And How Networks Can Be Connected
 Computer networks differ primarily by their geographical scope and the
communication protocols they use. Networks can be interconnected through various
methods, including routers, gateways, allowing devices and networks to
communicate and share resources.
Types of Networks:
 Local Area Network (LAN):
Connects devices within a small, defined area like a home, office, or school.
 Wide Area Network (WAN):
Spans a large geographical area, such as a country or continent, and often connects
multiple LANs.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Covers a larger area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically within a city or
metropolitan area.
 Campus Area Network (CAN):
Connects LANs across a campus or large corporate facility.
 Virtual Private Network (VPN):
Creates a secure, encrypted connection between a user's device and a network over a
public network like the internet.
 Personal Area Network (PAN):
Connects devices belonging to a single person, like smartphones, laptops, and
accessories, within a small range.
How Networks are Interconnected:
 Routers: Devices that forward data packets between different networks, ensuring that
traffic reaches the correct destination.
 Gateways: Used to connect networks with different protocols or address formats.
 Switches: Connect devices within a single network, allowing them to communicate with
each other.
 Wireless Access Points (AP): Provide wireless connectivity to a network.
 Internet: The largest WAN, interconnecting numerous networks and enabling global
communication.
Communication Protocols:
 Protocols like TCP/IP, HTTP, and SMTP govern how data is transmitted between devices
and networks.
 These protocols define the rules for how data is formatted, addressed, and transmitted over
the network.
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