LECTURE 1 AND 2 1.

Delivery: The data should be delivered

to the correct destination and correct
Chapter 1 user.
Introduction 2. Accuracy: The communication system
should deliver the data accurately,
1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS - The term without introducing any errors. The
telecommunication means data may get corrupted during
communication at a distance. The word transmission affecting the accuracy of
data refers to information presented in the delivered data.
whatever form is agreed upon by the 3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has
parties creating and using the data. Data to be delivered in a timely manner
communications are the exchange of data without any delay; such a data delivery
between two devices via some form of is called real time transmission of data.
transmission medium such as a wire 4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet
cable. arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect
the timeliness of data being
Topics discussed in this section: transmitted.
 Components
 Data Representation
 Data Flow
1-2 NETWORKS - A network is a set of devices
(often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable
of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Distributed Processing
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Network Models
 Categories of Networks
 Interconnection of Networks:
Internetwork

Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications
system depends upon the following four
fundamental
characteristics:
1-3 THE INTERNET - The Internet has  Hardware — It comprises all
revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. equipment that’s part of the network,
It has affected the way we do business as well including user devices, servers,
as the way we spend our leisure time. The gateways, switches, and routers.
Internet is a communication system that has  Network protocols — These are the
brought a wealth of information to our rules and models for how network
fingertips and organized it for our use. devices share data. Protocols serve as
a common language for different
Topics discussed in this section: machines, enabling them to
 A Brief History communicate with each other.
 The Internet Today (ISPs)  Transmission media — These
components include virtual or physical
paths data uses to travel within a
network. Transmission media can be
wired or wireless, where the former
contains all cables (primarily Ethernet
cables).
 Network topologies — A network
topology represents the structure of a
network.

What is the future of network

architecture?

 Simplicity is the goal — Network

architecture models are evolving,
1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS - In this replacing older ones. Next-generation
section, we define two widely used terms: architecture should focus on simplicity
protocols and standards. First, we define more than its predecessors because
protocol, which is synonymous with rule. this will make it easier to implement,
maintain, and scale it when needed.
Topics discussed in this section:  5G and 6G — The implementation of
 Protocols 5G networks is an ongoing process and
 Standards still faces certain challenges, like
 Standards Organizations specifying multiple deployment
 Internet Standards options, including standalone and non-
standalone ones.
What is network architecture?  Hybrid work culture — Many
businesses are switching to a hybrid
 Network architecture refers to the way working model where employees split
network devices and services are their time between their home and
structured to serve the connectivity office.
needs of client devices.  Blockchain and cryptocurrency —
 Network devices typically include Many companies, especially those in
switches and routers. the financial sector, are starting to
 Types of services include DHCP and adopt blockchain technology,
DNS. cryptocurrency, or both.
 Client devices comprise end-user  Artificial intelligence — AI systems can
devices, servers, and smart things. locate and respond to various network
Building blocks of network architectures: events, including security incidents.
Chapter 2
Network Models

2-1 LAYERED TASKS – We use the concept of

layers in our daily life. As an example, let us
consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a
letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no servicesn available from the post
office.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
 Hierarchy

2-2 THE OSI MODEL - Established in 1947, the

International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Layered Architecture
 Peer-to-Peer Processes
 Encapsulation
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL - In this section
we briefly describe the functions of each layer
in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

Data-link Layer has two sub-layers. These

layers are:
 Media Access Control (MAC) Layer
 Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer

The MAC Sub Layer controls how a computer

on the network gains access to the data and
permission to transmit it. And it carries the
physical address of each device on the
network.

The Logical Link Control (LLC) responsible for

managing frames to upper and lower layers,
Flow control mechanism and Error checking.
Session Layer (Layer 5) is the OSI layer, that
responsible for session jobs between the end
points. It provides session establishment,
maintenance and termination. Logging is also
done in this layer. One of the other main roles
of this session layer is multiplexing transport
layer services.

Session layer is mainly used by applications  For example, image formats like jpeg,
themselves. So, network engineers do not gif, voice formats like mp3 and video
work on this layer. This is the job of application format like mp4 are all need different
developers. behaviors. Presentation layer converts
this different data into areadable
format.

 Encryption and compression of the

data are also done in presentation
layer (layer 6) of OSI Model.
 Some of the protocols used in  Network Devices
Application Layer are Telnet, FTP,  As you know in a network there are
SMTP, HTTPS, SSL etc. Different some common network devices like
services work with these protocols. For Hubs, Repeaters, Bridges, Switches
example, the browser that you use and Routers. These devices operates in
internet, works with HTTP. By the way, different Layers of OSI model.
the application itself is not belong to
this layer.
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE - The layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match
those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport,
and application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Physical and Data Link Layers
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer

Physical Addresses
 The physical address, also known as
the link address, is the address of a
node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
 The size and format of these addresses
vary depending on the network.
OSI vs TCP/IP Model  For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte
 The modern Internet is not based on (48-bit) physical address.
OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model.  Physical addresses can be either
However, the OSI 7-layer model is still unicast (one single recipient),
widely used, as it helps visualize and multicast (a group of recipients), or
communicate how networks operate, broadcast (to be received by all
and helps isolate and troubleshoot systems in the network.
networking problems.  Example: Most local area networks use
a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address
written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every
byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
2-5 ADDRESSING - Four levels of addresses are separated by a colon, as shown below:
used in an internet employing the TCP/IP A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits)
protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific. physical address 07:01:02:01:2C:4B

Topics discussed in this section:

 Physical Addresses
 Logical Addresses
 Port Addresses
 Specific Addresses
Logical Addresses

 Logical addresses are used by

networking software to allow packets
to be independent of the physical
connection of the network, that is, to
work with different network
topologies and types of media.
 A logical address in the Internet is
currently a 32-bit address that can  The source network software stack
uniquely define a host connected to inserts the IP address information into
the Internet. An internet address in the data packets and forwards the
IPv4 in decimal numbers 132.24.75.9 packets toward their destination.
 No two publicly addressed and visible Internet routers move the packets
hosts on the Internet can have the from the source network to the
same IP address. destination network. Once the packets
 The physical addresses will change reach the destination network, the
from hop to hop, but the logical LAN translates the IP address to a MAC
addresses remain the same. address using Address Resolution
 The logical addresses can be either Protocol (ARP). It then adds the MAC
unicast (one single recipient), address to the data stream and sends
multicast (a group of recipients), or the data to the right device on the local
broadcast (all systems in the network). network.
There are limitations on broadcast
addresses.  Local network switches maintain ARP
tables that map IP addresses to MAC
addresses. When a router sends the
switch a packet with a destination
specified by an IP address, it uses the
ARP table to know which MAC address
to attach to the packet when it
forwards the data to the device as
Ethernet frames.

How MAC and IP addresses work together-

Any piece of internet software, such as a web
browser or email client, directs data to a
destination on the internet using the
destination's IP address.