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CVL342
Ch.2: Tension Members
PROF. SVETHA VENKATACHARI
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
IIT DELHI

Introduction
Tension members – the axial forces act so as to elongate (stretch) the
member.
They carry the load efficiently – entire c/s is subjected to uniform stress.
They do not fail by buckling.
Examples of tension members –
✓ Ties of trusses

✓ Suspenders in cable-stayed

& suspension bridges

✓ Sag rods of roof purlins

✓ Suspenders in building systems

✓ Bracings

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Typical Cross-sections
Used
A variety of cross-sections are used as tension members.
• Single & double angle sections – used in light roof trusses
• Tension members in bridge trusses – Channels or I-sections or
built-up sections
• Circular rods/flats – bracings designed to resist tension only –
they buckle at very low compressive loads
• Steel wire ropes/coils – suspenders in cable-stayed or
suspension bridges

Behavior of Tension Members

The load-deformation behavior of an axially loaded tension
member is similar to the basic material stress-strain
behavior.
Mild steel members exhibit
✓ Elastic range (O-B)
✓ Yield plateau (C’/C)
✓ Strain hardening range (D-E)
✓ Necking (E-F)

High-strength steel members do not exhibit a well-defined

yield point and a yield plateau. Engineering stress-strain curve for
mild steel
The 0.2% offset load is taken as the yield load in such cases.
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Modes of Failure
There are three failure modes for a tension member.

1. Gross section yielding

2. Net section rupture

3. Block shear failure

Design Strength due to Yielding of Gross Section

Typically, a tension member can resist loads up to the ultimate load without failure.
But such a member will deform considerably (10% to 15% of its original length) and
therefore, not serviceable.
Therefore, the yield load is taken as the limiting load.
Design strength due to yielding is given by
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = 𝛾𝑚0
(Clause 6.2)

Ag is the gross area of the cross-section.

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Design Strength due

to Rupture of Critical
Section
Frequently, tension members have
bolt holes.

When connected using bolts,

members have bolt holes – net
area

The presence of holes reduce the

strength of a tension member

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5EjQUEBQyuY

Design Strength due to Rupture of Critical Section

The tensile stress is not uniformly distributed at the c/s of a hole – stress concentration at the
hole
Design strength due to fracture is given by
0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = (Clause 6.3.1)
𝛾𝑚1

◦ fu – ultimate stress of the material

◦ An – the net area of the cross-section

◦ 𝛾𝑚1 - partial safety factor at ultimate stress (= 1.25)

Similarly, threaded rods subjected to tension can fail by rupture at the root of the threaded
region – An is taken as the net root area at the threaded section

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Net Sectional Area

Flats and Plates:
Chain bolting: The net sectional area is equal to the gross area minus the area of bolt holes.
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑏𝑡 − 𝑛 𝑑ℎ 𝑡
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ 𝑡
𝐴𝑛 = net sectional area of plate
𝐴𝑔 = gross sectional area of plate
𝑏 = width of plate
𝑛 = number of bolts (in this case = 2)
𝑑ℎ = diameter of bolt hole
𝑡 = thickness of plate

Net Sectional Area

Flats and Plates:

Zigzag bolting: Failure paths along the chain of bolts and

inclined (staggered) paths need to be considered.

Staggered path – a combination of direct tensile and shear

stresses – a smaller area is used.

𝑝12 𝑡 𝑝22 𝑡
Deduction = sectional area of holes − +
4𝑔1 4𝑔2

(Proposed by Cochrane in 1922 based on experimental

evidence)

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Net Sectional Area

𝑝12 𝑡 𝑝22 𝑡
Deduction = sectional area of holes − +
4𝑔1 4𝑔2
𝑝12 𝑡 𝑝22𝑡
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑔 − sectional area pf holes − +
4𝑔1 4𝑔2
𝑝12 𝑡 𝑝22 𝑡
= 𝑏𝑡 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ t + +
4𝑔1 4𝑔2
2
𝑝1 𝑝22
= 𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ + + 𝑡
4𝑔1 4𝑔2
𝑛 ′ 𝑝2
In general, 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ + 𝑡
4𝑔

Where p = staggered pitch, g = gauge distance, n’ = no. of staggered

pitches, n = no. of holes in the zig-zag line

➢All possible failure paths are to be considered and the one with minimum
net area governs the design strength.

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Block Shear Failure

Failure as a block – failure path involves tension
on one plane and shear on a perpendicular
plane along the fasteners
Block shear failure occurs through rupturing of
the net tension plane and yielding of the gross
shear plane.
Also possible to have rupture along the shear
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1DXCf6YABE plane and yielding along the tension plane,
however, in most cases the former governs

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Block Shear Failure

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Block Shear Failure

• Possible block shear failure paths need:
• To leave all the bolts intact

• To separate the member from the connection

• To include a path subjected to shear

• The path with the smallest failure regions tends to govern.

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Block Shear Failure

The block shear strength shall be taken as the smaller of (Clause 6.4.1),
1. For shear yield and tension fracture
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑛 𝑓𝑢
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + 0.9
3γ𝑚0 γ𝑚1
2. For tension yield and shear fracture
Atg fy Avn fu
Tdb2 = + 0.9
γm0 3γm1
Where 𝐴𝑣𝑔 and 𝐴𝑣𝑛 are the min. gross and net areas in shear along the line of force
𝐴𝑡𝑔 and 𝐴𝑡𝑛 are the min. gross and net areas in tension from the hole to the toe of the plate or
the next last row of bolts in plates perpendicular to the line of force

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The Von Mises Failure Criterion

• When an element is subjected to multiple stresses simultaneously, we need to use a failure
criterion to determine whether the stresses are acceptable.
• For metals and other ductile materials, the Von Mises yield criterion is a very common criterion.
• In 2D, the Von Mises yield criterion can be expressed as:

𝑓𝑦 = σ2𝑥 − σ𝑥 σ𝑦 + σ2𝑦 + 3τ2𝑥𝑦

• If you set all but σ𝑥 to zero, steel will yield when that stress reaches 𝑓𝑦 .
• If you set all the normal stress to zero, you can see that steel will yield when the shear stress
reaches:
𝑓𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = = 0.58𝑓𝑦
3

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Example 2.1
A 300 ISF 8 mm of grade Fe 410 is
used as a tension member in a lattice
girder. It is connected to a 12 mm
thick gusset plate by 18 mm diameter
bolts of grade 4.6. Calculate the
effective net area of the member, if
(a) chain bolting is done as shown in
Fig. (a).
(b) zig-zag bolting is done as shown in
Fig. (b)

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Net Sectional Area

Load transfer from the main plate to the cover plate/gusset:
• Each bolt resists an equal share of load.
• Therefore, different failure paths may be subjected to different
loads.
• For example, failure path 1-2-3-4 or 1-2-5-3-4 must resist the full
load.
• But failure path 1-2-5-6-7 will resist only 11/12 of the applied load.
The reason being 1/12 of the load is transferred from the member
through the bolt 3 before 1-2-5-6-7 receives any load.
• Consider the diamond bolt pattern.
• Critical path for tension member is 1-1
• Critical path for cover plate is 3-3

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Net Sectional Area

Angles and Tees:
Commonly used as tension members.
Typically, connected through one leg – non-uniform
stress distribution – shear lag effect
The equations derived for flats and plates can be
used for angle and tee sections connected through
all the elements (legs).
The c/s of angles/tees are developed into an
equivalent plate to obtain the overall width and
gauge length.

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Net Sectional Area

Angles and Tees:
The net area of an angle section connected through one of its legs is calculated as follows.
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑔𝑜 + 𝐴𝑛𝑐
𝑡
The gross area of the outstanding leg, 𝐴𝑔𝑜 = 𝑙𝑜 − 𝑡
2

▪ 𝑙𝑜 and 𝑡 are the length and thickness of the outstanding leg, respectively.
𝑡
The net area of the connected leg, 𝐴𝑛𝑐 = 𝑙𝑐𝑜 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ − 𝑡
2

▪ 𝑙𝑐𝑜 is the length of the connected leg, 𝑛 is the no. of bolt holes, 𝑑ℎ is the diameter of the bolt hole,
and 𝑡 is the thickness of the leg.
The net area obtained should be reduced for angles/tees connected through only one leg – effective net
area

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Effective Net Area

The net area needs to be modified to account for ductility of the material, method of
hole forming, geometry factor, and shear lag effect.
𝐴𝑛𝑒 = 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘4 𝐴𝑛
Ductility Factor (k1) – The net section strength increases with increase in ductility. For
commonly used structural steels, k1 = 1.
Method of hole forming (fabrication) (k2) – Bolt holes are made either by punching or
drilling.
▪ The strength of the members with punched holes is 10 – 15% less than that of a member with
drilled holes.
▪ The fabrication factor, k2 = 0.85 was proposed by Munse & Chesson (1963). In IS 800, the hole dia.
is taken 2 mm larger than the actual hole size to account for this effect.

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Effective Net Area

Geometry Factor (k3) – The efficiency of a bolted joint is inversely proportional to the
gauge/diameter (g/d) ratio. k3 can vary between 0.9 and 1.14. IS 800 recommends k3 = 1.
Shear Lag Factor (k4) – Steel sections which are not connected through some legs experience
nonuniform stress distribution – shear lag.
𝑥ҧ
▪ 𝑘4 = 1 − ≤ 0.9, where 𝑥ҧ is the dist. from the face of the gusset plate to the centroid of
𝐿
the connected area and 𝐿 is the length of the connection in the direction of the load.
▪ In IS 800, the coefficient k4 is denoted by α for the preliminary sizing of the section.
𝐴𝑛𝑒 = 𝛼𝐴𝑛
▪ The strength of the section connected through one of their legs, the effect of shear lag is
accounted by the factor β (Clause 6.3.3).

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Design Strength of an Angle Connected Through

One Leg in Rupture
The design strength, Tdn, governed by fracture at
the net section is (Clause 6.3.3)
0.9𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝑓𝑢 𝛽𝐴𝑔𝑜 𝑓𝑦
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = +
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0
𝑤 𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑠
𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 × ×
𝑡 𝑓𝑢 𝐿𝑐
𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0
≤ ×
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1 w = outstand leg width
≥ 0.7 bs = shear lag width, as shown in the figure
Lc = length of the end connection, that I the dist.
For other sections connected through one or more
Between the outermost bolts in the end joint
legs to a gusset, the design strength in rupture can
measured along the load direction or length of the
be calculated using the above equation (Clause
weld along the load direction
6.3.4).

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Table 3, IS 800:2007

Slenderness Ratio (λ)

The slenderness ratio of a tension member is defined as

𝐾𝐿
λ=
𝑟

Theoretically, there is no limit on the slenderness ratio of

a tension member.

To provide adequate rigidity to prevent undesirable lateral

movement or excessive vibrations, design specifications
limit the slenderness ratio for tension members.

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Example 2.2
Determine the effective net area for the angle section shown in the figure. The
angle is connected with 18 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6. The steel is of grade
Fe 410.

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Example 2.3
Compute the tensile strength of an angle section ISA 150 x 115 x 8 mm of E 250
grade of steel connected with the gusset plate as shown in the figure for the
following cases
a) Gross section yielding
b) Net section rupture

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Example 2.4
A tension member ISLB 250 @ 273.7 N/m is connected with two plates 175 mm wide and 10 mm
thick with two lines of 16 mm diameter bolts in each flange. The end connections are as shown in
Fig. Ex. 7.9. Determine,
(a) The design tensile strength of ISLB
section used.
(b) The design tensile force that the
plates can transfer.
Use Fe 410 grade of steel.

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Design of Tension Member – Steps

1. The net area required An to carry the factored load T is obtained by,
𝑇 𝑇
𝐴𝑛 = or by
0.9𝑓𝑢 Τ𝛾𝑚1 𝛼𝑓𝑢Τ𝛾𝑚1

as appropriate. Where T is the factored design load, 𝑓𝑢 is the ultimate strength of the material,
𝐴𝑛 is the net area of c/s, 𝛼 = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 as appropriate and 𝛾𝑚1 = 1.25.
2. The net area calculated thus is increased sutaibly (10% - 25%) to compute the tentative gross
sectional area.
3. The trial gross area is also determined from its yield strength by
𝑇
𝐴𝑔 =
𝑓𝑦 Τ𝛾𝑚0
where 𝑓𝑦 is the yield strength of the material and 𝛾𝑚0 = 1.1.

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Design of Tension Member – Steps

6. From SP 6(1) or IS 808, a suitable rolled section/built-up section providing a c/s area
matching with the computed gross c/s area is selected.
7. The no. of bolts (or weld length) required to make the connection is calculated. These are
arranged in a suitable pattern and the net area of the section provided is calculated.
Thereafter, the effective net area is determined if the selected section is not connected with
all of its elements.
8. The design strength Td of the trial section is calculated. This will be the minimum of strengths
in gross yielding (Tdg), net section fracture (Tdn), and block shear (Tdb). The design strength
should be more than the factored design load.
9. The slenderness ratio of the member is checked as per IS 800 specifications.

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Example 2.5
A tension member 0.95 m long is to resist a service dead load of 20 kN and a
service live load of 60 kN. Design a rectangular bar of standard structural steel of
grade Fe 410. Assume that the member is connected by one line of five 16 mm
diameter bolts of grade 4.6. Assume the connection arrangement is as shown in
the figure.

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Lug Angles
• If the load applied is heavy and the number of
bolts/length of weld required is large, the
gusset plate size required will be
uneconomical.
• An alternative is to provide an additional angle
along the tension member to reduce the
length of the connection – lug angle
• In many cases, the cost of fabrication and
connection of lug angles will be more – thus,
not preferred.

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Design of Lug Angles

Angle members (Clause 10.12.2) –
▪ Lug angles and their connection to gussets should be capable of developing strength not less
than 20% in excess of the force in the outstanding leg of the angle.
▪ The attachment of the lug angle to the angle member should be capable of developing 40%
in excess of that force.
▪ The whole area of the member should be taken as effective. The net area is calculated by
deducting the area of bolt holes from the gross c/s area.

Channel and other members (Clause 10.12.3) –

▪ Lug angles and their connection to gussets should be capable of developing strength not less
than 10% in excess of the force not accounted for by the direct connection of the member.
▪ The attachment of the lug angle to the angle member should be capable of developing 20%
in excess of that force.
▪ Lug angles should be placed symmetrically with respect to the section of the member.

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Splices
• Splices – used to join two sections when a joint
is to be provided
• Usually, bolted connections are used.
• If sections to be spliced are not of the same
thickness, packing is introduced.
• To avoid eccentricity, all elements of the c/s are
to be spliced.
• The splice cover plates, and its connections
should be designed to develop the net tensile
strength of the main member.

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Example 2.6
A diagonal member of a roof truss carries an axial tension of 450 kN. Design the
section and its connection with a gusset plate. The length of the connection is
limited to 400 mm. Design the lug angles also if required. Use fy = 250 MPa and fu
= 410 MPa. Assume 20 mm dia bolts of grade 4.6 with a strength of 45.3 kN.

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