21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

MODULE 1

PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Aggregates- Origin, Classification, Requirements, properties and tests on Road aggregates, Concepts of size
and gradation- design gradation, maximum aggregate size, aggregate blending by different methods to meet
specification.
Bitumen and Tar- Origin, Preparation, Properties and Chemical Constitution of bituminous road binders,
Requirements.
Bituminous emulsion and Cutbacks
Bituminous emulsion and Cutbacks- Preparation, Characteristics, uses and test. Adhesion of bitumen binders
to road aggregates, Adhesion failure, Mechanism of stripping, tests and methods of improving adhesion

AGGREGATES

Origin

The aggregates are largest constituents of asphalt and concrete mixtures. The properties of most an
aggregate is derived from its parental rock chemical and mineral composition which affects strength,
stiffness, density, pore structure and permeability. Rocks experience geothermal and weathering processes
which can produce granular materials in the form of natural gravels and sands, which can be used in
construction works without any modification or additional processes. On the other hand, crushed aggregates,
defined as granular materials produced by human related activities such as blasting, crushing and so on, have
rougher surface and more angular shapes comparing to natural sands.

Thus, aggregates can be classified into two main categories: Natural and Crushed Aggregates

In terms of origin, rocks are generally classified based on based on how the rocks were formed over long
periods of geological time.

a) Igneous
b) Sedimentary
c) Metamorphic

Igneous Rocks

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All rocks originate as igneous rocks, which are formed through cooling and solidification of molten magma as
it moves towards surface of earth.

Igneous rocks are further classed as:

a) Based on Crystallinity

1. Intrusive Rocks: If the solidification occurs slowly, the rocks are termed as intrusive rocks and are
crystalline in nature (coarse to medium grained). Example: Granite, Gabbro
2. Extrusive Rocks: When the molten material forces its way to the surface and cools quickly, the
extrusive rocks will be formed. Extrusive rocks are fine grained in nature. Example: Basalt

b) Based on size grains

1. Acidic: Light in color; Free quarts present, with Silica>66%, Specific Gravity<2.75. Example: Granite
2. Basic: Dark in color; Free quarts is not present, with Silica<66%, Specific Gravity>2.75. Example: Basalt

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by chemical and mechanical breakdown of pre-existing rocks or by deposition
of inorganic remains of marine animals. They are further classified based on the presence of predominant
mineral:

1. Calcareous: Containing calcium carbonate. Example: Limestone, Dolomite

2. Siliceous: Containing SiO2. Example: Sandstone
3. Argillaceous: Containing clay minerals. Example: Shale

Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous, sedimentary gets converted to metamorphic rocks when subjected to heat and/or pressure. Mineral
structure of the parent rock gets rearranged depending on the extent of exposure. Hydrothermal
metamorphism can result in the minerals in these rocks being re-formed and recrystallized which makes them
less durable and less stable and hence not very suitable to be used in pavement construction.

Example: Marble (limestone), quartzite (sandstone), slate (shale), gneiss (granite), schist (basalt)

Classification of Aggregates

a) According to source or nature of formation: Aggregate according to source or nature of formation are
more classified in four type.
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1. Naturally-occurring aggregates: The aggregates are found in the natural source like sea bed, slope
deposits, river Basin. Example: sand and gravel, pit Run.
2. Crushed Rock aggregates: Crushed rock aggregates is formed by crushing the various Rocks in quarries
Example: stone aggregate.
3. Recycled aggregates: The recycled aggregate is manufactured by crushing inert construction and
demolition waste.
4. Artificial aggregates: The artificial aggregates are made up by various waste material iron ore, artificial
cinders, burnt clay, steel rivet etc.

b) Classification of aggregate According to size:

1. Coarse aggregates: The aggregate having size of particles is more than 4.75mm are called coarse
aggregate. (Range 80mm to 4.75 mm)
2. Fine aggregates: The aggregate having size of particles is less than 4.75mm are called fine aggregate.
(4.75 mm to 75 Micron)
3. All-in-one aggregates: The aggregate containing both aggregate i.e. fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate is called as All-in-One aggregate.

c) Aggregates according to shape

1. Rounded: The shape of aggregate particles is almost circular with even smooth surface. It possesses
33-35 % Void ratio. This type of aggregate is not suitable for concreting.
2. Angular: The shape of aggregate friction is triangular with rough surface. It possesses 38-41% void
ratio.
3. Flaky: The shape of aggregate particle is showing less thickness than length and breadth. It has highest
percentage of voids. It is suitable for lower grade of concrete.
4. Elongated: The shape of aggregate having more length than Breadth and thickness.
5. Irregular or partly rounded: The shape of aggregate is partly rounded with uneven surface. It
possesses 35 to 37% void ratio. Useful for medium quality concrete.

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Desirable properties of aggregates

a) Strength
 The aggregates should be strong to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
 Aggregates used in top layers of pavements i.e. wearing course have to be capable of withstanding
high stresses in addition to wear and tear hence should possess resistance to crushing.

b) Hardness
 The aggregate used in pavement surface courses have to withstand the high magnitude of wheel
stresses and wear and tear. Hence aggregate should have resistance to abrasion caused by traffic
movements or it should possess hardness property.
 The aggregates should also have resistance from getting polished or smooth under traffic movement
in order to prevent pavement surface become too slippery especially under wet conditions.

c) Toughness
 Aggregates in pavements are subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads. Severe impact like
hammering is seen when heavily loaded steel tyred vehicles move on WBM roads.
 The magnitude of impact increases with the roughness of load surface, speed and vehicular
characteristics.
 Therefore, aggregates used in pavement layer should have resistance to impact or possess toughness
property.

d) Durability
 The aggregates should not disintegrate under adverse weather conditions including alternate wetting-
drying and freeze-thaw cycles.
 In other words, aggregates should have enough resistance to weathering action or should possess
durability property. The property of the stones to withstand adverse action of weather is called
soundness.

e) Shape of aggregates
 Too flaky and elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible as they can tend to get
crushed under the roller during compaction and may break down under heavy wheel loads. Hence,
angular shaped coarse aggregates are preferred in flexible pavement layers.

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f) Adhesion with Bitumen

 The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water or else bituminous
coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
 The chemical properties and the surface chemistry of the aggregate play important role in
performance of bituminous pavements.

g) Freedom from deleterious particles

 Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean,
tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay lumps
and other objectionable material.
 Similarly aggregates used in pavement construction must be clean and free from deleterious
substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt and other organic impurities.

Tests on Road Aggregate

Tests which are carried out to judge desirable properties and suitability of road aggregates are listed below:

1. Aggregate impact test - to assess toughness or resistance to impact

2. Los Angeles abrasion test - to evaluate hardness and also toughness
3. Aggregate crushing test - to assess strength characteristics
4. Shape tests – flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number
5. Soundness test durability of aggregate
6. Specific gravity and water absorption test
7. Bitumen adhesion test or stripping value test

1. Impact test (IS 2386 part-II)

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates. Aggregates
passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm
and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3 layers
where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows. Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to
drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The

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crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. The impact value is measured as percentage of
aggregates passing 2.36mm sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).

Aggregate Impact Value = × 100

Fig: Impact Test Set up

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30%. For bituminous macadam
the maximum permissible value is 35%. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible
value defined by IRC is 40%.

2. Los Angeles abrasion test (IS 2386 part-I)

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are
suitable for different pavement construction works. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the
percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive
charge.

Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm mounted on
horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Figure). An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls
of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number
of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used
depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the
speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.

After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve (W2) and passed fraction is expressed
as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Los Angeles Abrasion Value = × 100

Fig: Los Angeles Test Set up

A maximum value of 40% is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For bituminous concrete, a
maximum value of 35% is specified.

3. Aggregate Crushing test (IS 2386 part-IV)

The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied
crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a compression
test under standard load conditions. Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm
sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is
tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder
in three layers each layer being tampered again. The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes
gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36
mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample
(W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.

Aggregate Crushing Value = × 100

Fig: Aggregate Crushing Test Set up

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A value less than 10% signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35% would normally be
regarded as weak aggregates and not recommended for pavement construction works.

4. Shape Test (IS:2386 part-I)

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated particles in
it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and stability of mixes.

Flakiness Index:

The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least dimension is
less than 0.6 times their mean size. The sample of aggregate to be tested is first sieved through set of sieves
and separated in specifies sieve ranges. To separate flaky material, the aggregates are passed through the
appropriate slots of thickness and elongation gauge. Eg: If selected material of size range 20-16mm, the width
of slot to be selected in thickness gauge would be 18×0.6 = 10.8mm.

The flaky material passing the appropriate slots from each size range of aggregates are added up and let this
weight be weight of flaky particles (W1). If the total weight of aggregate taken is W, then flakiness is expressed
as:

Flakiness Index (FI) = × 100

IRS has suggested that FI of aggregates used in bituminous concrete and surface dressing should not exceed
25%; for Water Bound Macadam should not exceed 15%.

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Elongation Index:

The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3
mm.

The sample of aggregate to be tested is first sieved through set of sieves and separated in specifies sieve
ranges. The longest side of aggregate particles from each of size range is individually passed through
appropriate gauge of length gauge. Eg: If selected material of size range 20-16mm, the width of slot to be
selected length gauge would be 18×1.8 = 32.4mm.

The portion of elongated aggregates having the length greater than the specified gauge from each range is
weighed(W2). The total weight of elongated stones is expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the
sample taken to obtain the elongation index.

Elongation Index (EI) = × 100

Flakiness and Elongation Index in excess of 15% are generally considered undesirable; however, no
recognized limits have been laid down for elongation index.

Combined Index (CI): MORTH specified the permissible limit of the combined flakiness & elongation index for
aggregates to be used in different pavement layers [CI =FI+EI]. The value should not exceed 30% for wet mix
macadam (WMM), dense bituminous macadam (DBM) and bituminous concrete (BC) surface.

5. Soundness test (IS:2386 part-V)

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by conducting
accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing are likely to
disintegrate prematurely. Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a
saturated solution of either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven
to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all
undersized particles and weighing. And the loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with
sodium sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

6. Specific gravity and water absorption test (IS 2386 part-III)

Specific gravity test of aggregates is done to measure the strength or quality of the material. Stone with lower
specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher specific gravity value. Water absorption is an
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indicator for the strength of rock. Stones having high water absorption are more porous in nature and are
generally considered unstable unless they are found to be acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness
test.

About 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and placed in wire basket and
immersed in water for 24 hours. The sample is weighed in water and buoyant weight is found. The aggregates
are then taken out and dried well absorbent cloth and weighed. The aggregates are then dried in an oven at
a temperature of 110°C for 24 hours and the oven dried weight is determined. The specific gravity is
calculated by dividing dry weight of aggregates by weight of equal volume of water. The water absorption is
expressed as the percent water absorbed in terms of oven dried aggregates.

The specific gravity value for rocks generally varies between 2.6 to 2.9. Rocks with more than 0.6% water
absorption are considered unsatisfactory unless found acceptable based on strength.

7. Bitumen adhesion test

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from dust. In the
absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction. Adhesion problem
occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by removing moisture from the
aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping
of binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an
aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The
principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at temperature
40°C for 24 hours. IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Aggregate Gradation
The particle size distribution of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis is termed as gradation of
aggregates. If all the particles of an aggregate are of uniform size, the compacted mass will contain more
voids whereas aggregate comprising particles of various sizes will give a mass with lesser voids.
Thus, the particle size distribution of a mass of aggregate should be such that the smaller particles fill the
voids between the larger particles. The proper grading of an aggregate produces dense mix.

Types of Grading of Aggregates

1. Dense or well-graded aggregate

2. Gap-graded aggregate
3. Uniformly graded aggregate
4. Open-graded aggregate

Dense Graded Aggregate: A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately of equal amounts of
various sizes of aggregate. By having a dense gradation, most of the air voids between the materials are filled
with particles. A dense gradation will result in an even curve on the gradation graph.

Gap Graded Aggregate: It refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles
in the mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range

Uniform Graded Aggregate: It refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a very narrow size
range. In essence, all the particles are the same size. The curve is steep and only occupies the narrow size
range specified.

Open Graded Aggregate: It refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles
in the small range. This results in more air voids because there are not enough small particles to fill in the
voids between the larger particles. The curve is near vertical in the mid-size range, and flat and near-zero in
the small-size range

Dense Graded Gap Graded Uniform Graded Open Graded

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Maximum Aggregate Size

Maximum aggregate size can affect HMA, PCC and base/subbase courses in several ways. In HMA, instability
may result from excessively small maximum sizes; and poor workability and/or segregation may result from
excessively large maximum sizes. In PCC, large maximum sizes may not fit between reinforcing bar openings,
but they will generally increase PCC strength because the water-cement ratio can be lowered. ASTM C 125
defines the maximum aggregate size in one of two ways:

Maximum size: The smallest sieve through which 100 percent of the aggregate sample particles pass.
Superpave defines the maximum aggregate size as “one sieve larger than the nominal maximum size”.

Nominal maximum size: The largest sieve that retains some of the aggregate particles but generally not more
than 10 percent by weight. Superpave defines nominal maximum aggregate size as “one sieve size larger than
the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent of the material”.

Example:

Sieve size (mm) Avg. weight Percentage Weight

retained Retained
First sieve to retain more than 10% by
45 0 0 weight of material = 13.2mm.
37.5 30 2.3
Thus,
26.5 70 5.39
NMAS: 26.5mm
13.2 500 38.46
Maximum size: 37.5m
4.75 700 53.84

Proportioning of aggregates

The properties of the bituminous mix including the density and stability are very much dependent on the
aggregates and their grain size distribution. Gradation has a profound effect on mix performance. It might be
reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that produces maximum density. This would involve a
particle arrangement where smaller particles are packed between larger particles, thus reducing the void
space between particles. This create more particle-to-particle contact, which in bituminous pavements would
increase stability and reduce water infiltration. However, some minimum amount of void space is necessary
to:

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 provide adequate volume for the binder to occupy,

 promote rapid drainage, and
 provide resistance to frost action for base and sub base courses

A dense mixture may be obtained when this particle size distribution follows Fuller law which is expressed
as:

= (Fuller’s Equation)

where, p is the percent by weight of the total mixture passing any given sieve size ‘d’, D is the size of the
largest particle in that mixture, and n is the parameter depending on the shape of the aggregate (0.5 - 0.3
depending on shape of aggregate). Based on this law Fuller-Thompson gradation charts were developed by
adjusting the parameter n for fineness or coarseness of aggregates. Practical considerations like construction
methods, layer thickness, workability, etc. are also considered. For example, Table 10:1 provides a typical
gradation for bituminous concrete for a thickness of 40 mm.

Table: Specified gradation of aggregates for BC surface course of 40mm

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Following are the common methods of proportioning of aggregates:

1. Trial and error procedure: Vary the proportion of materials until the required aggregate gradation is
achieved.
2. Graphical Methods: Two graphical methods in common use for proportioning of aggregates are,
Triangular chart method and Rothfuch’s method. The former is used when only three materials are to
be mixed.

Triangular chart method:

 Let us consider three aggregates are to be blend using the triangular-chart method. The gradations of
A, B, and C and the specifications given in table 1:

 It is necessary to first divide the aggregates, as well as specifications into three size separation, so
that total of three size fraction is 100%.
The gradations of A, B, and C and the specifications given in Table 1 are re- tabulated in terms of
three separates defined by the No. 8 and No. 200 sieves.

 These are represented on a triangular chart on each side of an equilateral triangle representing the
percentages of the three fractions (0 to 100%, below figure).

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

 The next step is to plot points A, B, and C on the triangular chart based on their constituent fractions-
sand, gravel and silt-clay. Each of the three separates is measured from one of the sides as a base,
being 0 percent at the base and increasing to 100 percent at the opposite vertex.
 Let D represent the gradation desired of the material to be obtained by blending the materials A, B
and C.

 Draw a line AC. Then draw a line from B through the center of the specification area S until it intersects
AC at A’.
 Proportions of various aggregates needed in the blend can be determined by measuring the distance
from each aggregate to a point in the specification area and applying the principles of moment. Thus,
the required proportions of A, B and C can be calculated as follows:
’ ’
A= × × × 100

B= × 100
’ ’
C= × × 100

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Rothfutch’s Method

The method developed by Rothfuch’s is widely used and has been considered in many countries as one of
the most useful graphical procedure. The method is reasonably quick and simple and can be applied to
mixtures of any number of aggregates.

Proportioning of aggregate by Rothfutch Method:

1. Sieve analysis of different selected aggregate is carried out and results of grain size distribution are
tabulated giving different sieve size and the cumulative percentage passing each sieve.
2. The desired gradation is to decided based on recommended grain size distribution tables or by using
Fuller’s equation.
3. On a plain graph, plot the cumulative percentage passing various sieve (0 to 100%) are plotted on Y-
axis and different particle size on X-axis. The gradings of selected aggregates are plotted.
4. A balancing straight line which represents desired gradation is drawn as a straight line of convenient
slope is drawn from 100% passing point (III) on Y-axis to a point corresponding to 0 % passing on X-
axis (I).
5. The balancing straight lines of selected aggregate are obtained by allowing only minimum of the areas
on the center sides of the balancing lines.
6. The opposite ends of balancing straight lines are joined together; the proportions for the blend can
be read off from the points where these joining lines intersect the straight line representing the
specification grading.

Fig: Rothfuch’s (Balanced-area) method of aggregate blending

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Example:

1. Determine the proportion of aggregates A, B and C to be mixed together for obtaining desired gradation
using Rothfuth’s method

Percentage passing
Sieve size
Sample A Sample B Sample C Specification Mid specification
3/4 inch (19) 100 100 100 97
½ inch (12.5) 63 100 100 78
No. 4 (4.75) 19 100 100 48
No. 8 (2.38) 8 93 100 36
No. 50 (0.3) 5 55 100 36
No. 100 (0.15) 3 36 97 17
No. 200 (0.75) 2 3 88 8

Solution:

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

2. Determine the proportion of aggregates A, B and C to be mixed together for obtaining desired gradation
using Rothfuch’s method. Take n= 0.45

Sieve size Percentage passing

in mm Sample A Sample B Sample C
20 100 100 100
12.5 42 75 10
10 26 62 100
4.75 4 41 100
2.36 1 38 98
0.6 0 3 77
0.3 0 1 53
0.15 0 0 31
0.075 0 0 09

BITUMEN AND TAR:

Origin

Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae and other
once-living things. When these organisms died, their remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of
the ocean or lake where they lived. Under the heat and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the remains
were transformed into materials such as bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum. Deposits at the La Brea Tar Pitsare
an example. There are structural similarities between bitumen and the organic matter in carbonaceous
meteorites. However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct.

Asphalt or bitumen can sometimes be confused with "tar", which is a similar black, thermo plastic material
produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was
produced, tar was a readily available product and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The
addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to
road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt (bitumen)
has completely overtaken the use of tar in these applications.

BITUMEN is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude. TAR is a thermoplastic
material obtained from the destructive distillation of wood. The grade of bitumen used for pavement
construction work of roads and airfields are called paving grades and used for water proofing of structures
and industrial floors etc. are called industrial grades.

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The paving bitumen available in India is classified into two categories:

1. Paving bitumen from Assam petroleum denoted as A-type and designated as grades A35, A90.etc
2. Paving bitumen from other sources denoted as S-type and designated as grades S35, S90 etc.

The viscosity of bitumen is reduced some times by a volatile diluent this material is called Cutback.

The bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized with an
emulsifier; the material is known as Emulsion.

Difference between Bitumen and Tar

Sl No Bitumen Tar
1 Bitumen is found in black to brown in colour Tar is usually found in brown colour
2 Bitumen is obtained from fractional distillation of Tar is obtained by destructive distillation of
crude oil coal or wood
3 Bitumen is soluble in carbon disulphide and Tar is soluble in toluene
carbon tetra chloride
4 Molecular weight range for road bitumen is 400 Molecular weight range for road tar is 150 to
to 5000 3000
5 Bitumen consists of large amount of aromatic Tar consist of large amount of oily matter
hydrocarbon with lower molecular weight
6 Bitumen show resistance to coating road Tar coats more easily and retain it better in
aggregate and also does not retain in presence of presence of water
water
7 Free carbon content is less Free carbon content is more
8 It shows more resistance to weathering action It shows less resistance to weathering action
9 Less temperature susceptibility More temperature susceptibility

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Preparation of Bitumen from Petroleum

The refining of petroleum is most complex procedure, producing a tremendous range of products from the
simplest hydrocarbon gas methane to the hardest bitumen. Bitumen is produced from selected crude oils by
a process of concentration by distillation.

Usually, distillation is done in two steps.

 First the crude oil is heated up to 300-350°C and introduced into an atmospheric distillation column.
Lighter fractions like naphtha, kerosene and gas oil are separated from the crude oil at different
heights in the column.
 The heaviest fractions left at the bottom of the column are called heavy residue.
 The heavy residue is heated up to 350-400°C and introduced into a vacuum distillation column.
 By using reduced pressure, it is possible to further distillate lighter products from the residue because
the equivalent temperature (temperature under atmospheric conditions) is much higher.
 If second distillation were carried out under atmospheric conditions and by increasing the
temperature above 400°C, thermal decomposition/cracking of the heavy residue would occur.
 The residue at the bottom of the column is called short residue and is the feedstock for the
manufacture of bitumen.
 The viscosity of the short residue depends on the origin of the crude oil, the temperature of the long
residue, the temperature and pressure in the vacuum column and the residence time. Usually, the
conditions are such that short residue is produced with a Penetration between 100 and 300 mm

A flow diagram representing the distillation of topped oil in a modern refinery is given in figure below:

Fig: Schematic diagram of distillation process

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Chemical Constitution of Bitumen

Bitumen although formed from distillation process causes some changes which is closely related in
chemical nature to its primary source i.e., the crude petroleum oil. Bitumen is completely soluble in carbon-
di-sulphide but most of them divide the bitumen soluble in carbon-di-sulphide into 3 fractions:

a) Carbenes: fraction insoluble in carbon tetrachloride.

b) Asphaltenes: fraction insoluble in light aliphatic hydrocarbon solvent such as petroleum ether.

c) Maltenes: fraction soluble in light aliphatic hydrocarbon solvent

The molecular weight of asphaltene fraction is estimated between 1800 and 1,40,000 and maltenes have
molecular weight between 370 and 710.

The hydrocarbons in petroleum are of four basic forms:

a) Saturated aliphatic groups or paraffins

b) Naphthenic groups or cycloparaffins
c) Aromatic ring compounds
d) Aliphatic groups with olefin double bonds

Aliphatic group normally does not present in road bitumen. The approximate proportions of the other three
groups in the molten groups can be obtained from modified Waterman analysis.

Many properties of bitumen, particularly the non-Newtonian flow properties suggest that bitumen is a
colloidal system. The colloidal nature of bitumen is due to the presence of asphaltenes in association with
high molecular weight material from the maltenes fraction, form a disperse phase. This complex is normally
referred as ‘micellar phase’.

On the basis of flow properties, bitumen can be divided into two types, ‘sol’ type, in which there is little
interaction between micelles or a ‘gel’ type in which interaction of micelles are great enough to cause a loose
structure formation. Most of the distilled road bitumen are sol type, blowing leads to gel type structures.

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Requirements of Bitumen

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction.

a) Mixing: type of materials used, construction method, temperature during mixing, etc.
b) Attainment of desired stability of the mix
c) To maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions
d) To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface
e) To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in presence of water

In the view of above problems, the bitumen should possess the following desirable properties:

1. Viscosity: The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This
is achieved by heating the bitumen and aggregate prior to mixing or by use of cutbacks or emulsions
of suitable grade.
2. Temperature Susceptibility: The bituminous material should not be highly temperature susceptible.
During the hottest weather of the region the bituminous mix should not become too soft or unstable.
During cold weather the mix should not become too hard and brittle, causing cracking. The material
should be durable.
3. Adhesion Property: In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the aggregate. There
has to be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregate used in the mix.

Properties of Bitumen

1. Adhesion: A good binder must bring all construction material together and make it a single unit. So,
bitumen should be highly adhesive in nature. It should bind materials together properly without affecting the
properties of other materials.

Low adhesion leads to short life and stripping of materials (like striping of aggregates in the flexible pavement)
whereas high adhesion leads to the long life of roads. Impurities present in the bitumen are the biggest reason
behind the bad adhesion of bitumen in most cases.

2. Resistance to Water: Bitumen is insoluble in water and can serve as an effective sealant. Bitumen is water
resistant. Under some conditions water may be absorbed by minute quantities of inorganic salts in the
bitumen or filler in it. Lower water-resistive property leads to lower durability and lower strength of bitumen.
It also leads to low adhesion. Hence, bitumen should be highly resistive towards the water.
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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

3. Strength: Though mineral or filler materials (like aggregate) are the main bearing component; binding
material should also have sufficient strength to resist different live & dead loads (like self-weight and wheel
load). To measure the hardness of bitumen, the penetration test is conducted. The grades with penetrations
greater than 40 are mostly used in road construction

4. Viscosity and Flow: Viscosity should not be very low as well as very high because high viscosity leads to
difficulties in the application of bitumen and low viscosity leads to improper binding of materials as it flows
fast.

5. Softening point: Higher the softening point value, lower will be the temperature susceptibility. So, bitumen
with high softening value is preferred for hot climates.

6. Ductility: Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation.
Bitumen should bind all construction materials together for a long time in adverse weather condition.
Ductility test is conducted to determine the amount. Bitumen will stretch at temperature below its softening
point. The value of ductility ranges from 0 to over 150mm depending on the types of bitumen.

7. Specific Gravity: Specific gravity of a binder does not influence its behaviour. But all the same, its value is
needed in mix design. The property is determined at 27 °C and varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

8. Durability: Bitumen durability refers to the long-term resistance to oxidative hardening of the material in
the field. Although, in-service, all bitumen hardens with time through reaction. With oxygen in the air,
excessive rates of hardening (poor durability) can lead to premature binder. Embrittlement and surfacing
failure resulting in cracking and chip loss. Bitumen lives upto twenty years if maintained properly throughout
the pavement life.

9. Versatile: Bitumen should show a versatile nature. It must be workable during the construction phase and
must be rigid in the operation phase.

10 Economy: Bitumen must be available at a low cost. The cost of bitumen depends upon its grade but should
be economical to use.

11. Chemical Resistive: Bitumen has to tackle with different chemicals directly or indirectly (Eg: It has to
tackle with acids in the form of acid rain). So, it should be highly resistive against chemicals.

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Tests on bitumen

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The following tests are usually
conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous materials.

1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Softening point test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Viscosity test
6. Flash and Fire point test
7. Float test
8. Water content test
9. Loss on heating test

Penetration test (IS: 1203-1978)

It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a
standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds. BIS had standardized the equipment and test
procedure. The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and a device for
releasing and locking in any position. The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly
and poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration. The test should
be conducted at a specified temperature of 25°C. It may be noted that penetration value is largely influenced
by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size of the needle, weight placed on the needle and
the test temperature. A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at
standard test conditions. In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.

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Ductility test (IS: 1208-1978)

Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation. Ductility is
defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette of the material will be elongated
without breaking. Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The bitumen sample is
heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate. These samples with moulds are cooled in the
air and then in water bath at 27°C temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a
hot knife. Then the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath of the ductility machine for
about 90 minutes. The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the
machine is operated. The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility value which is reported
in cm. The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature, test temperature, rate of
pulling etc. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS.

Softening point test (IS: 1205-1978)

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening under
the specifications of test. The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. A brass ring containing test
sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed
upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5°C per minute. Temperature is noted
when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance below. Generally, higher
softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates. Figure 4.3 shows
Softening Point test setup.

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Specific gravity test (IS: 1202-1978)

In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most cases bitumen is weighed, but
when used with aggregates, the bitumen is converted to volume using density values. The density of bitumen
is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in aromatic type mineral impurities cause an
increase in specific gravity.

The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of known content
to the mass of equal volume of water at 27°C. The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer
or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state. The specific gravity of bitumen varies
from 0.97 to 1.02.

Viscosity test (IS: 1206-1978)

Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance to flow. At the
application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of resulting paving mixes. Low or
high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed to result in lower stability values. At high
viscosity, it resist the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is heterogeneous, hence low stability
values. And at low viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over aggregates, it will lubricate the aggregate
particles. Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders like cutbacks and
emulsions. The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass through

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the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and specified temperature. Viscosity of a cutback can be
measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25°C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40°C.

Flash and fire point test (IS: 1209-1978)

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles. And these volatiles
catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen
grade. BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen momentarily catches
fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions. The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature
under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.

Float test (IS: 1210-1978)

Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration test or viscosity test.
But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and Float test is used. The apparatus
consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould
is cooled to a temperature of 5°C and screwed in to float. The total test assembly is floated in the water bath
at 50°C and the time required for water to pass its way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is
expressed as the float value.

Water content test (IS: 1211-1978)

It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the bitumen when it
is heated above the boiling point of water. The water in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of
specimen in a pure petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the water. The weight of the
water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample. The allowable
maximum water content should not be more than 0.2% by weight.

Loss on heating test ( IS:1212-1978)

When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened. About 50gm of the sample is weighed
and heated to a temperature of 163°C for 5hours in a specified oven designed for this test. The sample
specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is expressed as percentage by weight
of the original sample. Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but
for bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.

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EMULSIONS

An emulsion is a two-phase system consisting of two immiscible liquids (unmixable or unbendable). It is a

mixture of bitumen, water and emulsifying agents. Since bitumen will not dissolve in water, bitumen and
water exits in separate phases as shown in fig below:

Fig: Bituminous Emulsion

Classification of Emulsion

a) Emulsifiers for road emulsions may be divided into twomain groups:

1. Anionic – electro negatively charged asphalt droplets

2. Cationic – electro positively charged asphalt droplets

1. Anionic

 If the bitumen is mixed with anionic (negatively charged) emulsifying agents, the asphalt droplets bear
a negative charge and the resulting mixture is termed as anionic emulsified asphalt.
Anionic Emulsifiers: neutralized fatty acid soaps, Sodium Stearoyl Glutamate, Sodium Stearoyl
Lactylate, and Potassium Cetyl Phosphate
 Aggregates such as limestone bear positive charges on surface and are generally compatible with the
negatively charged anionic emulsified asphalt.
 When the bituminous emulsion is mixed with an aggregate, it “sets” or “breaks” because the asphalt
droplets react with the surface of the aggregates and coalesce, squeezing out the water between
them.
 The evaporation of water is the primary reason which cause anionic bituminous emulsion to
break/set.

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2. Cationic

 If the bitumen is mixed with cationic (positively charged) emulsifying agents, the asphalt droplets bear
a positive charge and the resulting mixture is termed as cationic emulsified asphalt.
Cationic Emulsifier: Behentrimonium Chloride and Distearyl Dimethyl Ammonium Chloride
 Most of siliceous aggregates such as sand stone, quarts and gravel, are negatively charged and are
compatible with the positively charged cationic emulsified asphalt.
 Cationic emulsified asphalts break primarily by electro-chemical process.

b) Emulsion are further classified in to 3 types based on setting time.

1. Rapid setting: This type of bitumen emulsion breaks down rapidly as it comes with contact with
aggregate helping in fast setting and rapid curing. This category has little to no stability. Thus, RS
bitumen emulsions are rarely used to mix aggregates.
Uses: spray applications like sand and chip seals are the main utility for this type of asphalt emulsion.
2. Medium setting: The MS emulsions are the mixing grade emulsions. By design, medium set bitumen
emulsions are formulated not to break immediately upon contact with graded aggregates. Also,
depending on the formulation, this type of asphalt emulsion will continue to retain its workability for
a few minutes to several months
Uses: cold recycling, patch mixes, both cold and warm aggregate mixes
3. Slow setting: In this type of emulsion, a special type of emulsifier is used to slow the process of water
evaporation. This type of emulsifier is relatively stable. SS emulsions mix well with fine aggregates
while still allowing for extended workability and maximum mixing time. The ultimate objective of this
category of emulsions is dense aggregate mixing.
Uses: Tack coat, base stabilization, soil stabilization, dust control and dust palliatives, slurry seals and
fog seal

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Preparation of Emulsion

Methods of Making Road Emulsion

a) Colloid mill method

b) High-speed mixer method

a) Colloid Mill Method

Fig: Manufacture of Emulsion using Colloid Mill

 The colloid mill consists of a high-speed rotor which revolves in a stator, the clearance between the
rotor and the stator
 A hot solution of the emulsifiers in water and the heated bitumen are fed separately at a constant
rate into the machine in the appropriate constant proportions so that an emulsion of uniform binder
content is continuously produced.
 The amount of bitumen to be added depends upon the nature of use of bitumen emulsion. If it is used
for important works then between percent can range up to 60 to 70%. The average range of bitumen
mixed is from 40 to 70%.
 When Bitumen and water containing the emulsifying agents (Eg: Soap) are passed under pressure
through colloid mill, breakdown bitumen into very tiny droplets which are suspended in water.
Average size of bitumen droplet is about 2 micron.
 The emulsifying agent imparts an electric charge to the surface of the droplets cause them to repel
from each other, and thus the globules do not coalesce.
 The mix received from the colloidal mill is stored in the storage tanks and used as per requirement.

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 It has been shown that the degree of hardness of the water used has an influence on the degree of
dispersion and water-softening plants may need to be installed in areas of very hard water.
 Road emulsions can be continuously produced in colloid mills at rates of up to 2500 gallons per hour.

b) High-Speed Mixer Method

 This method is not widely used because it is a batch process and therefore more labor are required.
 The procedure is to run appropriate amount of water at just below boiling point into a 200 or 300
gallon mixer, the diameter of which is equal to depth of liquid it is proposed to mix.
 The mixer is fitted with a high-speed propeller type. Stirrer mounted off-center to avoid the
production of a vortex. Alkali is added to the water in the mixer and bitumen at about 100°C is slowly
run in with continuous stirring.
 Dispersions obtained by this method are not so uniform as those obtained in a colloidal mill. After
emulsification by either method, the material is pumped into storage tanks where it is allowed to cool.

Properties of Emulsion

The following are the properties pertaining largely to the constitution of emulsion before use.

a) Residue on sieving e) Viscosity

b) Stability to mixing with coarse- f) Coagulation at low temperature
graded aggregate g) Sedimentation
c) Stability to mixing with cement h) Stability on long-period storage
d) Water content
Residue on sieving: Practically all road bitumen and tars are slightly heavier than water and the globules of
binder will tend to sediment in emulsion; the rate at which it sediments depends on the size of the particle.
Hence percentage of large particles should be controlled and hence is to ensure that, not more than 0.25%
by weight of emulsion consists of particles greater than 0.006 inch/0.15mm in diameter.

Stability to mixing with coarse-graded aggregate: When mixing bitumen emulsions with coarse aggregates,
breakdown of the emulsion and coating off the aggregates with bitumen should not take place too early in
the mixing cycle. Stable emulsions should have sufficient mechanical and chemical stability for all purposes
involving mixing with fines and cement.

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 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Stability to mixing with cement: Stable emulsions should have sufficient mechanical and chemical stability
for all purposes involving mixing with aggregates including those containing large proportions of fines.
Cement is used as a standard fine aggregate.

Water content: Road emulsions may contain up to 65% of water. It is essential to know this percentage if the
quantity of bituminous binder actually used in the surfacing is to be measured accurately. The water content
of an emulsion is often varied to suit particular forms of application.

Viscosity: It is determined by the proportion of bitumen or tar in the emulsion and by the particle-size
distribution. The viscosity of the emulsion should be low enough to spray through conventional jets or to coat
stone. It is measured by Engler out flow viscometer.

Coagulation at Low Temperature: All emulsions contain water they are affected by extremes of heat and
cold. Exposure to temperatures below 0°C will result in freezing and the degree of recovery on thawing
depends on type of emulsion.

Sedimentation: Some sedimentation may occur when a drum of emulsion is left standing before use;
provided however the sediment re-disperses on agitation, the emulsion can be used satisfactory.

Stability on Long-Period Storage: When stored in drums under normal atmospheric conditions, the emulsion
should not separate in a form which cannot be re-dispersed by agitation.

Advantages and Limitations of Bitumen Emulsion

Advantages/Uses

1. Bitumen emulsion are used extensively in bituminous road construction. Other than this they are used
for maintenance and repair work.
2. Emulsions can be used in wet weather even if it is raining
3. Is ecofriendly as it is water based.
4. Bitumen emulation is also used in soil stabilization in desert areas.
5. It doesn't need extra heat while placing.
6. There is no wastage in placing and laying of bitumen.
7. They possess anti-stripping properties.
8. Rapid setting type of emulsion are used in surface of roads.
9. Medium setting type of emulsion are used in premixing of bitumen emulsion and coarse aggregate.

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10. Slow setting types of emulsion are used with fine aggregates as the surface area is large and requires
time for uniform mixing.

Limitations

 Storage time of bitumen emulsion ranges from few days to 6 months depending upon the percentage
of Bitumen added while production.
 Setting time may vary due to temperature, wind and type of emulsion.
 Not a single type of bitumen emulsion can be used for all works it depends upon the aggregate type
setting time nature of work etc.

CUTBACK BITUMEN

Cutback bitumen are liquid asphalts which are manufactured by adding petroleum solvents (diluents) to
bitumen. They are made to reduce viscosity of bitumen for lower application temperature.

Application of cutback mix in construction work, causes the solvents/volatile gets evaporated thus leaving
the bitumen residue on the surface which later develops the binding properties.

The viscosity of cutback and rate of which it hardens on the road depend on the characteristics and quantity
of both bitumen and volatile oil used as the diluents.

Types of Cutback Bitumen and Uses

Cutback bitumen is available in three types, namely:

a) Rapid Curing (RC)

b) Medium Curing (MC)
c) Slow Curing (SC)

Rapid Curing Cutbacks (RC): These are bitumen, fluxed or cutbacks with a petroleum distillate such as
naphtha or gasoline, which will rapidly evaporate after using in construction, leaving the bitumen binder. The
grade of the RC cutback is governed by the proportion of the solvent used. The penetration value of RC
cutback bitumen is 80 to 120.
Uses: Tack coat and surface treatment

Medium Curing Cutbacks (MC): The bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by blending with an intermediate
boiling-point solvent like kerosene or light diesel oil. MC cutbacks evaporate relatively at slow rate because

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the kerosene-range solvents will not evaporate rapidly as the gasoline-range solvents used in the
manufacture of RC cutbacks.MC products have good wetting properties and so satisfactory coating of fine
grain aggregate and sandy soils is possible.
Uses: Prime coat and stockpile patching mixture

Slow Curing Cutbacks (SC)

These are obtained either by blending bitumen with high-boiling-point gas, oil or by controlling the rate of
flow and temperature of the crude during the first cycle of refining. SC cutbacks or wood soils hardens or set
way slowly as it is a semi volatile material.
Uses: Prime coat, stockpile patching mixture and dust palliatives

Applications of Cutback Bitumen in Bituminous (asphalt) Road Construction, paving and Maintenance:

1. Prime and Tack Coating:

 The process of priming includes a low viscosity binder to a prepared (usually unbound)
aggregate base. It is intended to be blended by the top layers of the base and to be absorbed
by it in order to provide a surface which can easily be wetted by another bituminous covering
afterwards.
 The primer will be able to carry traffic for a short time (though it’s uncommon in practice) and
helps in controlling the dust. Usually, primers are applied at a rate between 0.5 and 1.4 L/m2.
 Cutback bitumen grades are an excellent choice for priming and are also used for tack coating,
being used to an underlying surface to help in the adhesion built between the first layer and
the subsequent asphalt layer.
2. Prime Sealing
 In locations with cold temperatures that interrupt an effective priming operation, or where
traffic is likely to damage a primed surface before spraying the final seal layer, a primer seal
can be applied to give enough protection of the pavement surface for periods of up to 6 to 12
months.
 The cutback of various grades can also be used in the process of manufacturing the pre-mix
asphalt, which is used in patch repairs.
3. Spray Sealing
 Cutback bitumen types are widely used in spraying sealing applications, particularly in low
temperatures where they offer a much better initial stone retention because of their lower

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viscosity. Commonly, a single application of the suitable cutback bitumen is sprayed onto the
primed pavement where aggregates lay.

Tests on Cutback Bitumen

Various tests carried out on cutback bitumen are:

a) Viscosity test: Same as bitumen at specified temperature using specified size orifice.
b) Penetration test, ductility test and test for matter soluble in carbon-di-sulphide on residue from
distillation up to 360°C.
c) Flash point test on cutback using Pensky Martens’s closed type apparatus.
d) Distillation test to find distillation fractions, up to specified temperature and to find the residue from
distillation up to 360° C

Adhesion of Bituminous Binders to Road Aggregates

Introduction

One of the principal functions of a bituminous binder is, as its name suggests, acting as an adhesive either
between road stones or between road stone and the underlying road surface. Neither bitumen nor tar can
be regarded as an ideal adhesive but in general when proper precautions are exercised, both are adequate.
If the road stones are wetted can lead to difficulties, either in the initial coating of damp roads stone in
maintaining an adequate bond between the binder and stone. The problems with water mixing in two ways,
firstly due to aggregates being wet before laying, secondly due to effect of rain after it has been laid.

Stripping

Stripping is generally defined as “the breaking of the adhesive bond between the aggregate surface and the
bitumen”. Several mechanisms have been suggested to explain the occurrence of stripping. It appears that
these mechanisms may act individually or together to cause adhesion failure in bituminous mixtures. The
water induced damage in bituminous layers may be associated with two reasons:
1. Loss of adhesion: The water gets between the bitumen and aggregate and strips the bitumen film
away, leaving aggregate without bitumen film coverage. This is because the aggregates have a greater
affinity for water than bitumen binder

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2. Loss of cohesion: Stripping mechanism includes the interaction of water with the bitumen that
reduces the cohesion within the bitumen

Fig: Phenomenon of Stripping

Stripping Mechanism

There may be five different mechanisms by which stripping of bitumen from an aggregate surface may occur.
These five mechanisms include: detachment, displacement, spontaneous, emulsification, pore pressure, and
hydraulic scouring.

1. Detachment: Detachment is separation of bitumen film from an aggregate surface by a thin layer of water,
with no obvious break in the bituminous film. Where stripping by detachment has occurred, the bitumen film
can be peeled cleanly from the aggregate, indicating a complete loss of adhesion.

2. Displacement: Stripping by displacement results from the penetration of water to the aggregate surface
through a break in the bitumen film. The break can be caused by incomplete coating of the aggregate initially
or by film rupture. Because the bitumen film at these locations is generally thinner and under tension, rupture
of the bitumen film is probably at the sharp edges and corners of angular aggregate pieces as a result of
traffic loading.

3. Spontaneous Emulsification: In spontaneous emulsification, water and bitumen combine to form an

inverted emulsion, where bitumen represents the continuous phase and water represent the discontinuous
phase. The formation of such an emulsion leads to stripping and is further aggravated by the presence of
emulsifiers such as mineral clays and some bitumen additive.

4. Pore Pressure: Pore pressure has been suggested as a mechanism of stripping in high void mixes where
water may circulate freely through interconnected voids. Upon densification of the mix from traffic loading,
water may trap in impermeable voids that previously permitted water circulation. Further traffic may induce
high excess pore pressure in the trapped water causing stripping of the bitumen film from the aggregate.

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5. Hydraulic Scouring: Hydraulic scouring is a mechanism of stripping that is applicable only to surface
courses. Stripping due to hydraulic scouring results from the action of vehicle tires on a saturated pavement
surface. This causes water to be pressed down into the pavement in front of the tire and immediately sucked
away from the pavement behind the tire. This compression-tension cycle is believed to contribute to the
stripping of the bitumen film from the aggregate.

Types of Adhesion Failure

a) Wet-Weather Damage to Surface Dressings

Wet chippings are frequently used for surface dressing. With untreated stone and binder, adhesion will not
take place until the stone dries out. In good weather, this process is rapid but with high atmospheric humidity
the chippings may remain wet for several hours or even days. Rain may cause displacement of the binder
from stone. Once the chippings have been removed, the binder is carried by vehicle tyres and extensive
damage may be expected. In other words, under the higher atmospheric humidity condition, the surface
dressing materials will be generally in wet condition. These chips will be loosened under the wheel loads,
resulting in extensive damages.

b) Stripping in Pre-Mixed Bituminous Materials

The problem of stripping is experienced only with bituminous mixtures which are permeable to water. If the
material is really impermeable such as with rolled asphalt, then stripping is most improbable. The use of
permeable bituminous surfacing materials results in displacement of binder from aggregate surface forming
‘fat patches’. If the stripping becomes extensive, the strength of the bituminous mixture is impaired and
deformation takes place under traffic.

Adhesion Test

Numerous tests have been described, most of which fall into 6 basic types. A sample of aggregates is coated
with a bituminous binder and then immersed in water under controlled conditions. The degree of stripping
of binder from the aggregate after a known period of time is measured.

a) Static Immersion Test

b) Dynamic Immersion Test
c) Chemical Immersion Test
d) Immersion Mechanical Test
e) Coating Test
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

a) Static Immersion Test

 In this type of test, aggregate coated with binder is immersed in water and the degree of stripping is
estimated.
 Single-sized chippings are coated with a constant quantity of binder under controlled conditions
 Coated stone is immersed in distilled water for 48 hours.
 The percentage of stripped surface is estimated visually.
 One more approach is to measure the quantity of light reflected by sample of coated aggregate before
and after immersion in water.

b) Dynamic Immersion Test

 It is similar to static immersion test but the sample is agitated mechanically by shaking or kneading.
 Coated aggregates are shaken in water for a known time and then the amount of stripping is
estimated visually.

c) Chemical Immersion Test

 Stone coated with binder is boiled in distilled water and if necessary, a solution of sodium carbonate
is added.
 The strength of the solution of sodium carbonate in which stripping is first observed is used as a
measure of the adhesivity.
 Attempts have been made to improve this test, for example by reducing the temperature and using
larger stone or by measuring the amount off uncoated aggregate which separates from coated mass.

d) Immersion Mechanical Test

 Degree of stripping of the binder from aggregate is observed indirectly by measuring the change in a
specified mechanical property of a bituminous material after it has been immersed in water.
 In this test, a number of identical cylindrical specimens of the bituminous mixture to be tested are
prepared.

 After few hours ‘curing’ some are used to determine the compressive strength under constant rate of
strain.
 The remainder are immersed in water for some days and then tested similarly.
 The reduction in strength gives an indication of the extent of any damage by water that has occurred.

e) Coating Test

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 21CV733-PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

 In this test an attempt is made to obtain adhesion between an aggregate and binder when water is
also present.
 Test involves immersion of tray of binder in water and then the application of chippings to the surface
of the binder. It is known as Immersion tray test.
 No adhesion is obtained under these conditions with normal road stones and binders but the test is
helpful for examining how surface-active agents improve adhesion between binder sand aggregates
in surface dressing under wet conditions.

f) Immersion Trafficking Test

Traffic may plan an important role in stripping. A number of tests have been described in which the
bituminous sample is subjected not only to the action of water but also to stresses produced by some form
of traffic.

These tests may be carried out on circular track machines or on machines where traffic simulated by
reciprocating wheels which passes over the specimens while it is immersed in water.

g) Wheel Tracking Test:

 This consist of three solid tyred wheels each 8 inch in diameter and 2-inch-wide which traverse three
specimens of road material.
 The wheels travel with a reciprocating motion of frequency 25 cycles/minute and stroke of about 11
inch. Each wheel is coated to give a total weight of 30 lb per sq. inch bearing on the specimen.
 The Specimens are contained in Perforated metal moulds 1½ inch deep, 12 inch long and 4 inch wide,
maintained horizontally in water level is well above the top of the specimens.
 The road material is compacted in moulds under standardized conditions and cured for short time
before immersion. The temperature of the water bath is 40° C.

The test machine is shown in diagram below:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT