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R Ray. 1

X-rays are electromagnetic radiations discovered by Rontgen, produced when fast-moving electrons are stopped by matter in X-ray tubes. They have properties such as penetrating matter, affecting photographic emulsions, and can be classified into hard and soft X-rays based on their energy and wavelength. X-rays are widely used in medical imaging and treatment, with their intensity controlled by the heating current and their quality determined by the accelerating potential difference.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
23 views6 pages

R Ray. 1

X-rays are electromagnetic radiations discovered by Rontgen, produced when fast-moving electrons are stopped by matter in X-ray tubes. They have properties such as penetrating matter, affecting photographic emulsions, and can be classified into hard and soft X-rays based on their energy and wavelength. X-rays are widely used in medical imaging and treatment, with their intensity controlled by the heating current and their quality determined by the accelerating potential difference.

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? are electromagnetic radiations that were discovered accidentally by Rontgen, a German, while conducting research on cathode rays. X-rays owe their name to the fact that at the time of their discovery, their nature was unknown. It is now known that X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by matter. Production of X-rays X-rays are produced in X-ray tubes where fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped on hitting metal targets. Figure 8.1 shows the essential components of an X-ray tube. Stop-up transformer, Electron |__Heater circuit Focusing ‘cathode Filament target Inoly bd dn uv Fig. 8.1: An X-ray tube When current flows through the filament in the cathode, electrons are produced by thermionic emission. The electrons are_accelerated towards the metal target (anode) by the high potential difference of the order 100 kV between the cathode and the anode. The cathode is concave shaped so as to focus the electron beam onto the target, which is usually of tungsten embedded onto copper. It is instructive to note that most of the kinetic energy of the electron is converted to heat, with only about 0.5 % being transformed to X-rays radiation. The target must therefore be a metal of high melting point, such as tungsten or molybdenum. The anode is made of a good conductor of heat, e.g., copper, to ensure efficient dissipation of heat. Cooling is further enhanced by the cooling fins on the outside of the tube and circulation of oil through the channels in the copper block (anode). In more recent models, see figure 8.2, the target rotates during operation to change the point of impact, thereby reducing the wear and tear on it. The tube is made of strong glass highly evacuated so that electrons do not lose some of their energy through collision with air molecules on their way to the target. The target is set at an angle (usually 45°) to the electron beam to direct the X-rays out of the tube through a window on the lead shield. The X-rays produced at Ms unsuitable angles are safely absorbed by the lead shield surrounding the tube. The high voltage required pplied from a step-up transformer, During the half-cyele when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, electrons are accelerated towards the target and X-rays are produced when bombardment takes place. In the reverse half-cyele, the anode is negative with Slectrons do not move to the target and therefore bombardment does not take place, hence X-rays are not produced in this reverse cycle. X-rays are therefore produced_in bursts, that is, only-in-those_half-cycles when the anode is_positive with respect to the cathode. However, due to the high frequency of a.c., the X-rays production appears to be omaele piriuee hols Tor ar 7 f difference respect to the cathode. ‘Motor to stepsup AAptate anode transtormer ry = i Evacuated f it — uh ect X09 1 on Rang | a eax Fig. 8.2: Modern rotating anode ay model tube with Properties of X-ray Ui) X-rays are not deflected by magnetic or electric fields. They are therefore not charged. (ii) They penetrate matter, with the least SECONDARY PHYSICS penetration occurring in materials of high density, e.g,, lead. (iii) X-rays affect photographic emulsions, a property used in X-ray photography, Aiv) In moving through air, they can knock off electrons from the molecule: on their path, They, therefore, ionise air molecules and_so_increase the conductivity of gas v(v) They cause photoclectric emission. (vi) They cause fluorescence in certain substances, ¢.g., zine sulphide. They are electromagnetic radiations of shorter wavelength than visible light. They can be plane-polarised and diffracted, showing that they are waves in nature, Aviii) They travel in straight lines at the speed of light (3.0 * 10° ms s Part of Electromag: Spectrum Experimental results on polarisation of X-rays and diffraction of X-rays by crystals have confirmed the wave nature of X-rays. Through the diffraction experiment, the wavelength of X-rays have been determined. X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength, of order 10" m, For classification purposes, electromagnet waves in the appropriate range of 10" to 10*m are considered as X-rays. This ‘ange overlaps with the ultraviolet at the upper end and gamma _ rays at the lower end, the only difference being only in the manner of production of each. I : Energy of X-rays If a bombarding electron is stopped in a collision most of its energy is converted to heat energy. At a given accelerating potential difference, the X-rays produced will have varying wavelengths, with the shortest (2.,,,) corresponding to a collision in which all the energy is assumed to have been converted to X-rays. The kinetic energy (K.E.) of the bombarding electron is practically equal to eV andis given by; b+ K. no’ When all the kinetic energy ofan electron is used to produce the energy of the X-rays, the frequency of the X-rays will be maximum (f.,.). Using Planck’s theory, the energy of the X-rays is given by; E = hf, where h is Planck’s constant and f the frequency of radiation. The value of the Planck's constant is 6.63 x 10 Js Thus, eV =hf,,. Since ¢ = fA, where c is the velocity of J Foquovuyy R squid is the minimum f,,, = <%, where 2, wavelength. c i, This shows that the most energetic X-rays have the shortest wavelength. “eV=h Example 1 Find the frequency and the energy of X-rays whose wavelength is 10°" m in a vacuum. (velocity of light ¢ = 3.0 « 10° = eV, where ¢ is the electron charge and V the accelerating potential difference. _ 119 ms", Planck’s constant h = 6.63 * 10™Js). Solution c=fh Ee a 10" = 3.0 10" Hz E =hf = 6.63 x 10 x 3.0 x 108 989 x 105) The frequency of X-rays range from 3.0 « 10" to 3.0 x 10”Hz. Determine the: (a) range of the wavelengths. (b) maximum energy of X-rays. (velocity of light, c = 3.0 x 10* ms“! and Planck’s constant h = 6.63 x 10*Js) Solution (a) Let , and A, be the wavelengths. c= fA, 2 £ f, 3.0 x 108 ~ 3.0« 10" =1.0*10°m 3.0 « 10" =1.0*10"m Thus, the range of the wavelengths is 10 m to 10°m (b) The maximum energy is given by; 120 Ena = fas = 6.63 x 10™ x 3.0.x 10” = 1.989 x 10") Example 3 An X-ray tube has an accelerating potential difference of 100 KV. Determine the shortest wavelength in its X-ray beam (Planck's constant h = 6.63 x. 107*Js, charge on electron, ¢ =1.6 x 10°C and velocity of light, c = 3.0 x 10°ms") Solution eV =hf, i abe : eV _ 6.63 x 10 x 3.0 x 108 ~ 1.6 x 10-8 x 108 =1.24« 10m Hard and Soft X-rays There are two types of X-rays, namely, hard and soft X-rays. Hard X-rays are produced by fast moving electrons as a result ofa high accelerating voltage. They © have very short wavelength and thus high penetrating power. They can penetrate the flesh, but are absorbed by bones. Sofi X-rays are produced by electrons moving at relatively lower velocities than those that produce hard X-rays. They have less energy, longer wavelengths, hence less penetrating power compared, to hard X-rays. They are used to show malignant growth in tissues, since they only penetrate soft flesh but are absorbed by such growths. SECONDARY PHYSICS Intensity (Quantity) of X-rays The intensity of X-rays is controlled by the heating current. The greater the heating current, the greater the number of electrons produced, hence the more the X-rays. The strength (quality) of the X-rays will however remain the same. The strength of the X-rays depends on the speed of the electrons, which in turn depends on the accelerating potential difference between the cathode and the anode. Uses of X-rays In Medicine (Radiography and Radiotherapy) X-rays are used in hospitals and medical research centres for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The diagnosis involves a process called X-ray imaging. in which X-rays are allowed to cast a shadow onto a photographic film. Examination of the photographic film reveals the injury or the infection of the tissue. This is because of the difference in the absorption of X-rays by different tissues of the body. A broken limb, for example, when X-rayed will reveal the nature of the fracture on the bone. Diagnosis of softer tissues such as the lungs, liver, spleen, the heart, ki other internal organs with the com X-ray equipment are not accurate enough, hence special X-ray equipment is required. Computed tomography (CT) employs @ special X-ray equipment and computer processing of image data taken from different angles around the body, to show cross-sections of body tissue and organs.

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