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Robert Ball
Brian Rague
The Beginner’s
Guide to Data
Science
The Beginner’s Guide to Data Science
Robert Ball • Brian Rague
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter
developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed
to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Laura, with all my heart – R.B.
To my family Gina, Justin, Maria, Alexis, and Roanna
for their enduring love and support – B.W.R.
Preface
Data science does not broker in abstractions or theories. One of the primary objectives of data
science is to make sense of a large number of observations, and consequently to make sense of
the real world. The type of analysis performed in data science is deeply rooted in the art of
acquiring, wrangling, and visualizing information. Information either stored on servers, in the
cloud, or in our brains can be said to have substance. Bits and bytes have weight both meta-
phorically and physically.
Our ability to decipher and filter large amounts of sensory data allows us to navigate suc-
cessfully through our busy and sometimes dangerous world. Similarly, data science provides
the methodology and tools to accurately interpret an increasing volume of incoming informa-
tion in order to discern patterns, evaluate trends, and make the right decisions. The results of
data science analysis provide real-world answers to real-world questions.
This book is about real-world questions and about arriving at the answers as expeditiously
and precisely as possible. On the surface, these inquiries may appear to require simple, straight-
forward responses – yes or no. However, it is the depth and breadth of the question and the
ramifications inherent in the answer that demand our focus and respect.
In one possible scenario, responding to the question in the affirmative may take us down a
path involving significantly greater personal or financial commitments and resources than if
the answer were a succinct and definitive “no.” As with any true scientific investigation,
answers should lead to further questions. The bottom line is that within the data science realm,
answers and questions are equivalent in importance and the tools we use to derive the end
results must rise to the level of proficiency and accuracy required by the analytical demands
imposed by both question and answer.
Given a well-posed question, the topics in this book provide concise descriptions of the
techniques and tools used in data science to generate viable answers. Data science as a disci-
pline leverages strategies and technologies derived from computer science, statistics, and vari-
ous business domains. Data science is the progeny of these fields but does not belong to any
particular one.
The data scientist is an inter-disciplinarian, utilizing the core knowledge from several areas
to make assessments of current data for the purposes of determining future directions in
research and analysis. This book is intended for the beginning application-oriented data scien-
tist who wishes to learn the essential methods necessary to extract meaning from numbers.
Yes – to both.
We believe that a modern textbook should cover the materials and applications that a stu-
dent needs. Unlike traditional textbooks in which the student begins at “Chap. 1” and reads
sequentially to the last chapter, we have made every effort to present and package the essential
topics contained in this book so that the student is free to utilize select chapters based solely on
their interests.
vii
viii Preface
As a result, the chapters contained in this book are not necessarily meant to be read in the
order in which they appear.
There are many Python example programs used throughout this book. We have done our best
to make these examples readily available at a separate downloadable location. In addition,
almost every image used in this book was created by Python code. For these plots and dia-
grams, the source code designed to create the image is cited and available. The current down-
load location for the code included in this book is the URL: https://github.com/robertball/
Beginners-Guide-Data-Science
There are three main reasons for posting the Python code at this separate location:
• There are many instances when having the code occupy unnecessary space in the book is
neither meaningful nor instructive, so we have maintained the code separately to be perused,
executed, and evaluated at your leisure.
• Python and its various associated libraries change. As a result, there may come a time when
certain sample programs in the book no longer run efficiently or successfully on modern
computers. Under these special circumstances we will respond by updating the relevant
programs so they remain functional and informative. We cannot easily update the content of
this book, but we can easily revise and refine downloadable code.
• Copying directly from this book to another resource such as a development environment
often inadvertently transfers various formatting issues. Access to a download of the original
code can avoid these formatting and program structure issues altogether.
Code Formatting
We differentiate code examples from the narrative text of the book. The following is an exam-
ple of a code snippet:
Definitions
We highlight definitions in the book by italicizing the term being described.
Ship Names, Movie Names, Book Names, and Latin
Following modern conventions, we have also italicized ship names like the HMS Titanic (i.e.,
The Titanic), movie names like Back to the Future, book names like Wizard of Oz, and Latin
words or phrases like a priori.
Emphasis
We designate special emphasis for specific points and statements by bolding them.
OgdenRobert Ball
UT, USA
OgdenBrian Rague
UT, USA
Contents
ix
x Contents
∗∗∗
The purpose of this book is very simple: to help you make money either directly or indirectly through data science. Before
we provide our definition of data science, let us be clear about your potential motivations for reading this book.
If you wish to read a book about the theoretical foundations of data science (or big data/data analytics) then we recom-
mend you do not waste your time with this book. This book at its core is a practical book that will help you make money.
There are many other academic books on data science that are filled with mathematical symbols and expressions that explain
the principles and algorithms behind data science in greater detail than this book. We do in fact use mathematical symbols
and expressions from time to time; however, they are intended to help further clarify the topic under consideration, but you
may ignore them without compromising your understanding of the material.
This book will help you make money directly if you are an entrepreneur seeking to produce a product such as a recom-
mendation engine to move your business forward. In addition, this book will help you make money indirectly by launching
your career into the expanding field of data science where you will assist your organization (e.g., business, government, or
charity) to increase their revenue and you will consequently maintain a stable, growing income by retaining a prestigious
position with a rewarding salary.
Regardless of which path you choose, you will want to read this book if you are a motivated person willing to learn a range
of different skills to generate revenue, directly or indirectly, in data science. The path is not always obvious, but for the moti-
vated person, it is well worth it.
If you wish to make money directly then the possibility exists that millions to billions of dollars can be earned by learning
and effectively applying the concepts of data science. For example, consider Amazon (the company). The core part of their
business is twofold: (1) recommending the right products to people by leveraging a recommendation system so that people
buy what they want when they want and, (2) determining the best methods to reduce costs by shipping the products that
people purchase in a fast and efficient way through optimized logistics and warehousing governed by processes related to
supply chain management. These two main business strategies either originate from or are heavily influenced by data science
and analytics.
If you wish to make money indirectly then data science can help your organization in making well founded decisions and
predictions that cover all facets of business operations. The more valuable you are to your organization in designing and
distributing new products, reducing costs, and discovering new markets, for example, the more secure and extensive your
employment opportunities will be and the more money you will be able to earn.
Either way you choose, this book will help you succeed in a practical way by combining business (domain) knowledge
and common sense with the reliable foundations of statistics and computer science.
However, whereas most data science books focus primarily on statistics and computer science, we realize that without
fully considering and appreciating the business aspect of data science your end result is primarily of theoretical, academic
value. In other words, without serious examination of a practical business purpose, your efforts and results will belong to the
nominal category of “Oh! That is neat! I am sure your mother is very proud of what you did.” In contrast, our hope is that
your data science results will produce the following reaction, “Wait... Are you saying that if we do that (or build that) that we
can make that much money!! Woah... This is huge! Let me call the VP and see how fast we can get your results and recom-
mendations into action right now.”
Regardless of your level of interest in making money, it is important to have a revenue-generating mindset. No matter
what kind of project you undertake, you will need money to operate. Your project might be especially noble, altruistic, and
perfectly aligned with your inner values and priorities, and we fully support and congratulate those objectives. However, you
will need money to keep the lights on in the building, to buy food, to hire additional people for the project, and in general to
keep the motivational fire blazing. The more your results help finance either yourself or your organization the more likely
both your short-term and long-term goals will be realized.
1.1 Superpowers
If you invite 100 data scientists into a room and ask them to define “data science” then you will likely hear 100 different
definitions.
For the purposes of this book, we will define data science as an inter-disciplinary field of investigation that is concerned
with obtaining accurate and reliable insights about data. This insight is often obtained by using domain knowledge (i.e., the
business side), statistics, linear algebra, machine learning, visualization, programming, cluster computing, and creativity. In
more straightforward terms, data science is a field that involves primarily the domain (what the topic is about), statistics, and
computer science.
Another way to view data science is as an exciting and expanding field of endeavor where we do whatever is necessary to
fully comprehend and gain insight into data.
Insight, the ability to gain an accurate and intuitive understanding of data, is the key to success for modern businesses.
Insight into what customers want and why they want it defines the profitable and rewarding pathways into the foreseeable
future for many businesses.
1.2 What Is Data Science? 3
Actionable insight enables people and businesses to react to what is going on around them in the invisible, data-driven
world. The methodologies and techniques developed to discover “what we know we don’t know” are vital to the success of
a business.
Although we can sense the many physical, tangible properties of the world around us, such as smell, color, sound, and
temperature, there are many things that we cannot detect. For example, we cannot observe with our eyes what the probability
will be for snow next week nor see how traffic patterns are related to economies nor sense so many other millions of patterns
that are hidden inside complex data.
Due to the complex nature of life and the dynamic processes associated with daily experience, data science itself is com-
plex and involves many diverse topics that can never be fully covered in a single book. After you read this book, we encour-
age you to continue your lifelong journey of further exploring data science topics.
Data science is interdisciplinary, which by definition means that data science does not belong sequestered and siloed
within a single field. By its very nature data science does not exist in isolation or separate from the human experience.
Does anything really exist in isolation? No subject exists by itself, even the seemingly independent axioms and theorems
that define mathematics. Can a person study mathematics without enlisting their brain in the analysis of abstract concepts?
A brain is made up of cells whose study is part of biology. Also, the study of the mind and behavior is psychology. Also,
mathematicians write to describe their work. A mathematician cannot write without pencils, pens, chalk, or some other writ-
ing instrument. If mathematics could simply be thought of and not transcribed to paper, then it would have to be communi-
cated through sound which involves physics.
To use the field of geography as a resource, the first law of geography states, “All things are related. The closer they are
the more related they are to each other.” That is true with all fields and all disciplines in life.
The main thing to remember about data science is that both statistics and computer science are tools. For example,
programming languages such as R and Python are used for a specific purpose when applied to data science problems. A
data scientist usually does not take a compiler design course to create programming languages. Similarly, although
machine learning is utilized in and integral to data science, data scientists typically do not create new machine learning
algorithms.
This conceptual overlapping organization resembles how e-commerce (buying and selling products online) uses advanced
cryptography algorithms to ensure that sensitive information such as credit card numbers are not stolen during an online
transaction. Although advanced mathematics was used to create the algorithms it is not necessary to have an advanced degree
in mathematics to employ them.
Using a more widely familiar example, we all recognize that we do not need to know how to build a car to drive one.
Automotive engineers require years of experience in mathematics and engineering to design and manufacture a car. However,
to drive a car, you only need to complete a driver’s education class and obtain your driver's license. Although it can be argued
that knowing more about the detailed electrical and mechanical functions of your car can be a significant advantage when
traveling from place to place, it is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for driving the vehicle.
Figure 1.1 displays a Venn diagram of where data science resides in relation to computer science, statistics, and business,
a visual confirmation that data science is truly an interdisciplinary endeavor.
Computer
Science
Data
Science
Statistics Business
Fig. 1.1 The interdisciplinary nature of data science. In reality, nothing exists in isolation
4 1 Introduction to Data Science
Think about the temperature of air outside right now at your current location. What will be the recorded temperature at your
location tomorrow? Let us be even more specific and state that we only want to know what tomorrow’s low temperature
will be.
This particular fact-finding task is framed as a simple question but figuring out the answer can be very challenging.
Meteorology, the branch of science that is concerned with the atmosphere and forecasting of weather, is a complex field,
covering metrics and topics such as pressure, temperature, jet streams, moisture, atmospheric layers, mesoscale processes,
pollution, volcanic activity, and energetics.
Do you need a degree or advanced knowledge in meteorology to forecast tomorrow’s temperature at your location? The
answer is no.
If you allow a prediction within a specific range, then we could state that tomorrow’s low temperature will be today’s low
temperature plus or minus (+/−) 50° Fahrenheit (F). For example, if it is currently 25° outside then tomorrow will most likely
be between −25° and 75°. How would you assess the quality of this prediction? If you wait until tomorrow this guess will
most likely be 100% correct. Our prediction is so broad and inclusive that it does not even matter if we measure temperature
using the Fahrenheit or Celsius scale, as either outcome will likely fall within the predicted range.
However, can we narrow down this range of temperatures? Of course! We can predict that tomorrow’s low temperature
will most likely be today’s low temperature +/− 10° F. We might not achieve 100% accuracy, but we will still be in close
proximity to the actual temperature.
What level of accuracy can be achieved? Predicting tomorrow’s temperature is not that hard because even a modest level
of data analysis indicates that it is rare for tomorrow’s temperature to be extremely different from today’s temperature,
although this may occur on rare occasions.
Let us construct a more complex query: What will the temperature at your current location be 100 days from now? More
abstractly, what will the temperature be at your current location X days from now where X is any natural number? For
example, X could be 120 or 200 or even 1000.
This question is essentially about a forecast, i.e. predicting the future. If we could accurately estimate the temperature and
general weather (e.g., rain, snow, wind) of any location on earth for any day in the future to 100% accuracy then we will
easily be the source of information for most everyone on the planet for all future weather forecasts. Even if we were only
95% accurate then we could open a weather forecasting business and effectively shut down all other weather predicting busi-
nesses across the globe.
In other words, predicting the future, more commonly known as forecasting, ultimately reduces to the essentials of busi-
ness, providing value over a sustained period of time.
Data science helps businesses become and/or stay relevant, provides customers what they want in a timely manner, and
most importantly, seeks to understand why the customer wants what they want even if they do not entirely understand it
themselves.
Data science can be used in any area where data exists such as health care, finance, law, government, education, sports,
and other areas of work or play. If data are generated in that field, then data science can be effectively utilized. In fact, what
current field or topic does not utilize data in some form?
One way to understand what data scientists do is by examining the end product. The following is a list of items and objectives
that most data science projects include:
• Provide actionable insights
• Tell stories with data
• Communicate complex results in a clear, understandable manner
• Create consumable predictive products
• Align business goals with the data science process
1.4 Understand the Process by Focusing on the End 5
1.4.1 Actionable Insights
One of the most important results of any data science project is to formulate actionable insights. For example, after analyzing
publicly available campaign donations, key factors of donors might be found that shed light on the industries typically associ-
ated with each political party.
For example, if a person is employed in finance then it has been generally demonstrated they are more likely to vote for a
Republican candidate in the United States. For most people, an insight that links careers and political parties may barely
register. However, for potential political candidates (e.g., people trying to get elected or reelected), such information could
establish a good return on investment regarding donor identification.
To illustrate, a political candidate canvassing a random cross-section of people for donations would likely receive a low
overall ROI for their time and effort. A return on investment (ROI) is a key performance metric for determining the effective-
ness in expending resources toward a specific business objective. For example, given the amount you invested in this book,
what did you actually gain from reading it and applying the principles described?
Regarding the ROI for a political candidate’s general survey of a random cross-section of people, did the hours of request-
ing financial backing justify the few donations received? Conversely, if the candidate knew exactly the industry and individu-
als to pursue for donations, like the finance sector mentioned previously, then a much higher ROI would be achieved by
targeting only those people that evince a high probability of donating.
Another example of effectively applying actionable insights could involve the type of information discussed in a presenta-
tion about climate change. Given the same data and results, one presentation might produce actionable results while another
does not.
For example, one presentation might emphasize only how humans have affected the global climate. The audience might
find that presentation interesting, but not constructively respond by altering any behavior after the presentation has con-
cluded. Another presentation based on the same information might instead offer actionable results and provide a list of
measures the audience can perform to counteract any negative influence on climate. Specifically, the presentation might
illustrate how switching from incandescent to LED light bulbs in a household is an impactful, actionable item for the audi-
ence to consider.
One important skillset that data scientists usually learn very early is that telling a story is instrumental in crystallizing the
purpose of data analysis and the insights to be gained by exploring the data. Questions that should be addressed when work-
ing with data sets include:
• What does the data mean?
• Where did the data come from?
• What current insights are available from the data?
• What future predictions are available from the data?
For example, given all the data from the standardized test scores of elementary students in a given state, people have found
that elementary students who take the standardized tests earlier in the day before lunch attain higher scores than peers in the
same school who are administered the test in the afternoon.
An actionable insight would be to recommend that the elementary schools only administer the standardized tests in the
morning. This approach would likely result in overall higher scores for the elementary school, which often translates into
additional funding for these schools.
The descriptive storyline of these results and recommendations is vitally important though. Numerous psychological stud-
ies have found that people gravitate and respond to stories. People love stories and will pay attention if you relate an abstract
idea as a story. However, simply listing facts will likely result in your audience becoming distracted and thinking about other
pressing concerns, like their next meal or family responsibilities.
Consequently, a data scientist should present the insights gained from studying the standardized tests by recounting the
personal stories and experiences of either actual or fictional students.
For example, which do you find more interesting: (1) listening to someone lecture at length about concepts related to
circadian rhythm (the reason why students perform better on tests in the morning) or (2) listening to a person who introduces
Sally and Sarah, identical twins from a loving home with well-adjusted parents in a middle-class neighborhood.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
the Attila and the Liberation of Peter were suggested by incidents in
the life of Leo, and consequently that they could not have been
thought of before the accession of that pope. Of all these works the
Attila is justly considered to be the most perfect example of fresco
painting, and to exhibit the greatest command over the material;
though produced after the death of Julius, it may be regarded as the
noblest result of that impulse which the pontiff’s energy had
communicated to Raphael. The character of Leo X., as a protector of
art, has been perhaps sometimes too favourably represented. More
educated than his predecessor, he loved the refinement which the
arts and letters imparted to his court; but he had no deep interest,
like Julius, in inciting such men as Raphael and Michael Angelo to do
their utmost under his auspices. Whether from the indifference of
Leo, or from his neglecting, as Vasari hints, to discharge his
pecuniary debts to Raphael, we soon find the painter employed in
various other works, and the remaining frescoes of the Vatican bear
evidence of the frequent employment of other hands. Many works of
minor importance in the same palace were entirely executed by his
assistants.
The celebrated Cartoons were designs for tapestries, of which more
than twenty of various sizes are preserved in the Vatican. The
Cartoons, it may be inferred, were equally numerous, but seven
only, now fit Hampton Court, remain entire. A portion of another was
bequeathed by the late Prince Hoare to the Foundling Hospital,
where it is now to be seen. These works owed their existence to the
Pope’s love of magnificence rather than to a true taste for art; but
although destined for a merely ornamental purpose, some of the
designs are among the very finest of Raphael’s inventions, and a few
may have been, at least in part, executed by his hand. The Ananias,
the Charge to Peter, the Paul and Barnabas at Lystra, and the Paul
preaching at Athens, are generally considered to have the greatest
pretensions to this additional interest. The fine portrait of Leo with
the Cardinals de’ Medici and de’ Rossi completes the list of larger
works undertaken for the Pope, but the many designs by Raphael
from classical or mythological subjects may be supposed to have
been also made at the suggestion of the pontiff. In obedience to his
wishes, Raphael undertook the inspection of the ancient Roman
monuments, and superintended the improvements of St. Peter’s.
Among the numerous and extensive works done for other employers
may be mentioned the Sybils in the Chiesa della Pace, the frescoes
from Apuleius’s story of Cupid and Psyche in the palace of Agostino
Chigi, called the Farnesina, where the so-called Galatea was the
beginning of another Cyclus from the same fable, the Madonna del
Pesce, the Madonna di S. Sisto, and the Spasimo di Sicilia. Many a
palace in the neighbourhood of Rome still exhibits remains of
frescoes for which Raphael at least furnished the designs; and his
own Casino, near the more modern Villa Borghese, may retain traces
of his hand, but it is now fast falling to decay. A long list of portraits
might be added to the above works, together with many interesting
designs in architecture, and even some productions in sculpture. In
reviewing the amazing number of works attributed to Raphael, it
must not however be forgotten that many are his only in the
invention, and some pictures that bear his name may have been
even designed as well as finished by his imitators. The Flemish
copies of Raphael are frequent, and are to be detected, among other
indications, by their extreme smoothness; the contemporary
imitations, especially those of the earlier style of the master, by
Domenico Alfani and Vincenzo di S. Geminiano, are much less easily
distinguished. The question respecting the Urbino earthenware may
be considered to have been set at rest by Passeri (Storia delle pitture
in Maiolica di Pesaro e di altri luoghi della Provincia Metaurense).
From this inquiry, it appears, first, that the art of painting this ware
had not arrived at perfection till twenty years after Raphael’s death:
and secondly, that about that time Guid’ Ubaldo II. (della Rovere)
collected engravings after Raphael, and even original designs by
him, and had them copied in the Urbino manufactory. Battista
Franco at one time superintended the execution, and one of the
artists was called Raffaello del Colle; his name may perhaps
occasionally be inscribed on the Urbino ware, but the initials O. F.
(Orazio Fontana) are the most frequent.
The Transfiguration was the last oil picture of importance on which
Raphael was employed; it was unfinished at his death, and was
afterwards completed, together with various other works, by his
scholars. The last and worst misstatement of Vasari cannot be
passed over, for unfortunately, none of the biographer’s mistakes
have been oftener repeated than that which ascribes the death of
this great man to the indulgence of his passion for the Fornarina.
Cardinal Antonelli was in possession of an original document, first
published by Cancellieri, which assigns a different, and a much more
probable, cause for Raphael’s death; it thus concludes,—“Life in him
(Raphael) seemed to inform a most fragile bodily structure, for he
was all mind; and moreover, his physical forces were much impaired
by the extraordinary exertions he had gone through, and which it is
wonderful to think he could have made in so short a life. Being then
in a very delicate state of health, he received orders one day while
at the Farnesina to repair to the court; not to lose time, he ran all
the way to the Vatican, and arrived there heated and breathless;
there the sudden chill of the vast rooms, where he was obliged to
stand long consulting on the alterations of St. Peter’s, checked the
perspiration, and he was presently seized with an indisposition. On
his return home, he was attacked with a fever, which ended in his
death.” Raphael was born and died on Good Friday. Some of his
biographers have hence, through an oversight, asserted that he lived
exactly thirty-seven years. He was born March 28, 1483, and died
April 6, 1520. He was buried in the Pantheon, now the church of Sta.
Maria ad Martyres, in a niche or chapel which he had himself
endowed. His remains have been lately found there.
Quatremère de Quincy’s ‘Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de
Rafael, etc. Paris, 1824,’ has been improved and superseded by the
notes to the Italian translation of Longhena, Milan, 1829. Pungileoni,
the author of the ‘Elogio Storico di Giovanni Santi, Urbino, 1822,’ has
been long employed in preparing a life of Raphael. The observations
of Rumohr, in the third volume of his ‘Italienische Forschungen,
Berlin, 1831,’ are original and valuable. A few interesting facts will be
found in Fea’s ‘Notizie intorno Raffaele Sanzio, Rome 1822.’ The
author, however, fails to prove the regularity of Leo’s payments to
Raphael, since the latest document concerning the frescoes in the
Stanze has the date 1514.
The engraving is from a miniature after the portrait by Raphael
himself, in his first manner, cut from the stucco of a wall at Urbino,
which forms the chief attraction of the Camera di’ ritratti at Florence.
The head engraved by Morghen, and so generally known, represents
the features of Bindo Altoviti, which do not even resemble in a single
point those of Raphael. The notion arose solely from a passage in
Vasari’s Lives:—‘E a Bindo Altoviti fece il ritratto suo;’ for Bindo
Altoviti he did his portrait (not his own): these words were distorted
by the Editor Bottari in a marginal note; but the error has been
decisively exposed by Missirini and others, whose account is every
where received in Italy. Nor does it appear that the Tuscans in
general fell into the mistake, for the portrait now given, and not, as
Bottari asserts, the Altoviti portrait, is engraved in the Museum
Florentinum.
[Death of Ananias.]
KNOX.
John Knox was born in East Lothian, in 1505, probably at the village
of Gifford, but, according to some accounts, at the small town of
Haddington, in the grammar-school of which he received the
rudiments of his education. His parents were of humble rank, but
sufficiently removed from want to support their son at the University
of St. Andrew’s, which Knox entered about the year 1524. He passed
with credit through his academical course, and took orders at the
age of twenty-five, if not sooner. In his theological reading, he was
led by curiosity to examine the works of ancient authors quoted by
the scholastic divines. These gave him new views of religion, and led
him on to the perusal of the scriptures themselves. The change in
his opinions appears to have commenced about 1535. It led him to
recommend to others, as well as to practise, a more rational course
of study than that prescribed by the ancient usage of the University.
This innovation brought him under suspicion of being attached to the
principles of the Reformation, which was making secret progress in
Scotland: and, having ventured to censure the corruptions which
prevailed in the Church, he found it expedient to quit St. Andrew’s in
1542, and return to the south of Scotland, where he openly avowed
his adherence to the Reformed doctrines.
Engraved by B. Holl.
JOHN KNOX.
London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.
ADAM SMITH.
London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.
A. SMITH.
CALVIN.
London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.
CALVIN.