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Chemistry

The document covers various topics in chemistry, including solid state properties, solutions, electrochemistry, chemical kinetics, surface chemistry, and the isolation of elements. It also discusses p-block and d/f-block elements, coordination compounds, organic compounds, biomolecules, polymers, and their applications in everyday life. Key concepts include types of solids, concentration terms, electrochemical cells, reaction rates, and the structure and function of biomolecules.

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5 views3 pages

Chemistry

The document covers various topics in chemistry, including solid state properties, solutions, electrochemistry, chemical kinetics, surface chemistry, and the isolation of elements. It also discusses p-block and d/f-block elements, coordination compounds, organic compounds, biomolecules, polymers, and their applications in everyday life. Key concepts include types of solids, concentration terms, electrochemical cells, reaction rates, and the structure and function of biomolecules.

Uploaded by

mronak945
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as TXT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 1: Solid State

Types of Solids: Crystalline (well-defined geometrical shape) vs. Amorphous (no


defined shape).

Unit Cell: The smallest repeating unit in a crystal lattice. Types: Simple
(Primitive), Body-Centered (BCC), Face-Centered (FCC).

Packing Efficiency: The fraction of space occupied by particles in a unit cell.

Types of Defects: Point defects (vacancies, interstitials), line defects, and plane
defects.

Crystal Systems: There are 7 crystal systems based on the shape and angles between
axes (e.g., Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, etc.).

Chapter 2: Solutions
Concentration Terms: Molarity, Molality, Mole Fraction.

Colligative Properties: Properties that depend on the number of solute particles


(not their nature). Includes:

Lowering of Vapour Pressure

Boiling Point Elevation

Freezing Point Depression

Osmotic Pressure

Raoult's Law: The partial vapor pressure of each volatile component in a solution
is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

Chapter 3: Electrochemistry
Electrochemical Cells: Galvanic (Spontaneous reaction) vs. Electrolytic (Non-
spontaneous reaction).

Nernst Equation: Relates the cell potential to concentration at non-standard


conditions.

Conductance: Electrical conductance of a solution, depending on the number of ions


and their mobility.

Faraday’s Laws: Relates the amount of substance involved in an electrochemical


reaction to the charge passed.

Chapter 4: Chemical Kinetics


Rate of Reaction: Speed of a chemical reaction; depends on concentration,
temperature, and catalyst.

Order of Reaction: The power of the concentration term in the rate law.

Rate Law: An equation that relates the rate of a reaction to the concentration of
reactants.

Activation Energy: Minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.

Arrhenius Equation: Describes how temperature affects the rate of a reaction.

Chapter 5: Surface Chemistry


Adsorption: The accumulation of molecules at the surface of a solid or liquid.

Types: Physical (van der Waals forces) vs. Chemical (covalent bonds).

Catalysis: Speeds up the reaction rate without being consumed.

Heterogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst in a different phase than reactants.

Homogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst in the same phase as reactants.

Chapter 6: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements


Extraction Methods: Electrolytic reduction, reduction with carbon, or chemical
reduction.

Alloys: Mixtures of metals with specific properties (e.g., brass, bronze).

Chapter 7: p-Block Elements


Group 15: Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony.

Nitrogen forms N₂, NO₂, N₂O, etc.

Phosphorus forms P₄ and oxides like P₂O₅.

Group 16: Oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium.

Oxygen forms O₂, O₃, H₂O₂.

Sulfur forms S₈ and oxides like SO₂ and SO₃.

Group 17: Halogens.

Chlorine, bromine, iodine.

Reactivity decreases as we go down the group.

Chapter 8: d- and f-Block Elements


Transition Elements: Elements in d-block exhibit variable oxidation states and form
colored compounds.

Lanthanides & Actinides: Inner transition elements, mainly f-block, show complex
chemistry, such as lanthanide contraction.

Chapter 9: Coordination Compounds


Ligands: Molecules or ions that can donate electron pairs to a central metal
atom/ion.

Types: Monodentate, Bidentate, Polydentate.

Coordination Number: Number of ligand atoms attached to the central metal ion.

Isomerism: Geometrical and optical isomerism in coordination compounds.

Chapter 10: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes


Haloalkanes: Alkanes with halogen atoms (e.g., CH₃Cl). Reactivity includes
nucleophilic substitution.

Haloarenes: Arene compounds with halogen atoms attached (e.g., C₆H₅Cl). Less
reactive compared to haloalkanes due to the stability of the benzene ring.
Chapter 11: Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
Alcohols: Contain hydroxyl (-OH) group. Types: Primary, secondary, tertiary.

Phenols: Compounds where -OH is directly attached to a benzene ring.

Ethers: R-O-R structure. Have lower boiling points than alcohols.

Chapter 12: Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids


Aldehydes: Contain -CHO group. Example: Formaldehyde, Acetaldehyde.

Ketones: Contain C=O group. Example: Acetone, Acetophenone.

Carboxylic Acids: Contain -COOH group. Example: Acetic acid, Benzoic acid.

Chapter 13: Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen


Amines: Contain -NH₂, -NHR, or -NR₂ group. Can be primary, secondary, or tertiary.

Nitriles: Contain -CN group.

Amino Acids & Proteins: Building blocks of proteins.

Chapter 14: Biomolecules


Carbohydrates: Simple sugars (monosaccharides) and complex sugars
(polysaccharides).

Proteins: Made of amino acids. Levels of structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary,


and quaternary.

Enzymes: Biological catalysts.

Chapter 15: Polymers


Types: Addition and condensation polymers.

Examples: Polythene, Bakelite, Nylon.

Biodegradable Polymers: Plastics that decompose naturally, e.g., polylactic acid


(PLA).

Chapter 16: Chemistry in Everyday Life


Medicinal Chemistry: Drugs and their therapeutic effects.

Soaps and Detergents: Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids; detergents are
synthetic soaps.

Food Chemistry: Additives, preservatives, and flavorings.

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