1.

Solid State
Crystals: Solid materials with a regular arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules.
They are classified into:

Crystalline Solids: Have a definite shape and symmetry.

Amorphous Solids: Lack definite structure.

Types of Crystals:

Ionic: e.g., NaCl

Covalent: e.g., Diamond

Molecular: e.g., Ice

Metallic: e.g., Copper

Defects in Solids:

Point Defects: Vacancies, interstitial defects, and substitutional defects.

Line Defects: Dislocations (edge, screw).

Packing Efficiency: The fraction of volume occupied by atoms in a crystal lattice.

2. Solutions
Concentration Terms:

Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution

Molality (m) = moles of solute / kg of solvent

Mole Fraction (X) = moles of component / total moles of all components

Colligative Properties (dependent on the number of particles):

Relative lowering of vapor pressure

Boiling point elevation

Freezing point depression

Osmotic pressure

3. Electrochemistry
Redox Reactions: Involves the transfer of electrons.

Oxidation: Loss of electrons

Reduction: Gain of electrons

Electrochemical Cells: Devices that convert chemical energy to electrical energy

(e.g., Galvanic cells, Daniell cell).

Nernst Equation: Used to calculate the potential of an electrode under non-standard

conditions.

Faraday’s Laws: Quantitative relationship between electric charge and chemical

changes during electrolysis.

4. Chemical Kinetics
Rate of Reaction: Change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.

Rate Law: Expression showing relationship between rate and concentrations of

reactants.

Rate = k [A]^m [B]^n

Order of Reaction: Sum of the powers of the concentration terms in the rate law.

Activation Energy: Minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.

Arrhenius Equation: k = A * e^(-Ea/RT), describes temperature dependence of rate

constant.

5. Surface Chemistry
Adsorption: Accumulation of molecules at the surface of a solid or liquid.

Catalysis: The acceleration of a reaction by a catalyst.

Heterogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst is in a different phase from reactants.

Homogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst and reactants are in the same phase.

Colloids: Mixtures where particles are dispersed in another substance.

Examples: Sol, gel, foam, emulsions.

Properties: Tyndall effect, Brownian motion.

6. General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements

Extraction of Metals: Process includes crushing, grinding, concentration,
reduction, and refining.

Ore: Naturally occurring solid material from which a metal can be extracted
profitably.

Methods of Extraction:

Roasting: Heating ores in air.

Calcination: Heating ores in the absence of air.

Electrolytic Reduction: Used for metals like aluminum.

Alloys: Mixtures of metals (e.g., stainless steel, brass).

7. p-Block Elements
Group 15 (Nitrogen Family): Includes nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and
bismuth.

Nitrogen forms a variety of compounds like NH3, NO2, N2O.

Group 16 (Oxygen Family): Includes oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and

polonium.

Sulfur forms compounds like SO2, SO3, H2SO4.

Group 17 (Halogens): Includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.

Reactivity decreases down the group.

Group 18 (Noble Gases): Includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

Inert gases, stable electron configuration, used in lighting, cryogenics.

8. d- and f- Block Elements

Transition Elements: Elements in the d-block, known for their variable oxidation
states and formation of colored compounds.

Lanthanides and Actinides: Rare earth elements (f-block), typically known for their
radioactive properties (e.g., Uranium).

9. Coordination Compounds
Ligand: A molecule or ion that can donate electron pairs to a metal ion.

Coordination Number: The number of ligand atoms bonded to the metal ion.

Chelation: A process where a ligand forms multiple bonds with a central metal ion.

Isomerism: Can be structural (linkage) or stereoisomerism (geometrical and

optical).

Werner’s Theory: Focuses on the bonding in coordination compounds.

10. Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Haloalkanes: Compounds containing a halogen atom bonded to an alkane.

Haloarenes: Compounds where a halogen atom is bonded to an aromatic ring.

Reactions: Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, and reduction reactions.

11. Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers

Alcohols: Contain -OH group; undergo reactions like dehydration, oxidation.

Phenols: Contain hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring.

Ethers: R-O-R’, with oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.

Reactions: Alcohols undergo esterification, phenols undergo electrophilic

substitution.

12. Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids

Aldehydes: Contain -CHO group (e.g., formaldehyde, acetaldehyde).

Ketones: Contain a carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms (e.g., acetone).

Carboxylic Acids: Contain -COOH group (e.g., acetic acid).

Reactions: Oxidation, reduction, condensation.

13. Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques

IUPAC Nomenclature: Systematic way of naming organic compounds.

Functional Groups: Groups of atoms that determine the chemical reactivity of a

compound.
Isomerism: Structural and stereoisomerism in organic compounds.

14. Biomolecules
Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches, consist of monosaccharides (glucose, fructose).

Proteins: Polymers of amino acids, enzymes are biological catalysts.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, carry genetic information.

Vitamins: Organic compounds essential for metabolic processes.

15. Polymers
Addition Polymers: Formed by the addition of monomers (e.g., polyethylene).

Condensation Polymers: Formed by elimination of a small molecule (e.g., nylon,

polyester).

Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers that can be broken down by microorganisms.

16. Chemistry in Everyday Life

Drugs: Medicinal compounds, such as analgesics (pain relievers), antibiotics, and
antiseptics.

Soaps and Detergents: Used for cleaning purposes. Soaps are made from natural fats
and oils, while detergents are synthetic.