1.

Equations and Reactions:

 Acids, Bases, and Salts:

o Acids release H+ ions in water, bases release OH- ions, and salts are formed in reactions
between acids and bases, metals, or carbonates.

o Key reactions:

 Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

 Acid + Base → Salt + Water

 Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO2

 Displacement Reactions: More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from compounds.

o Example: Mg+CuSO4→MgSO4+CuMg + CuSO_4 \rightarrow MgSO_4 + CuMg+CuSO4

2. Metals and their Reactions:

 Reduction with Carbon: Metals like zinc are extracted by reducing their oxides with carbon.

o Example: ZnO+C→Zn+COZnO + C \rightarrow Zn + COZnO+C→Zn+CO

 Metal + Water/Steam: Group I and II metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and
hydrogen gas.

o Example: Na+H2O→NaOH+H2Na + H_2O \rightarrow NaOH + H_2Na+H2O→NaOH+H2

 Extraction of Iron (Blast Furnace):

o Iron Ore + Carbon → Iron + CO2.

3. Salts and Preparation:

 Soluble Salts: Made by reacting acids with alkalis or metals.

 Insoluble Salts: Made by mixing two soluble salts to precipitate out an insoluble one.

o Example: BaCl2+MgSO4→BaSO4+MgCl2BaCl_2 + MgSO_4 \rightarrow BaSO_4 +

4. Organic Chemistry:

 Alkanes: Single-bond hydrocarbons used as fuels (e.g., methane, butane).

 Ethene: Double-bonded alkene used to make polymers and ethanol.

 Fractional Distillation: Separates components like crude oil into useful parts.

5. Tests and Identification:

 Anion Tests:
 o Carbonates: React with acid to produce CO2.

o Sulfates: React with barium chloride to form a white precipitate.

 Cation Tests:

o Sodium hydroxide test forms colored precipitates (e.g., copper ions form blue).

6. Industrial Chemistry:

 Haber Process: Converts nitrogen and hydrogen into ammonia for fertilizers.

 Electrolysis: Used to refine metals and extract them from ores (e.g., aluminum extraction).

7. Uses of Common Substances:

 Sulfuric Acid: Used in car batteries and fertilizer production.

 Ammonia: Used in fertilizers and the production of nitric acid.

 Water: Used as a solvent and coolant in industries.

8. Practical Chemistry:

 Chromatography: Separates mixtures like dyes.

 Electroplating: Coats metals to prevent rusting.

Chemical Reactions & Equations

 Reactions of Acids:

o With Metals: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen.

o With Bases: Acid + Base → Salt + Water.

o With Carbonates: Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide.

o With Ammonium Salts: Produces salt, water, and ammonia gas.

 Redox Reactions: Metals like magnesium can displace less reactive metals from their compounds
(displacement reactions). Reduction of metal oxides using carbon is another key redox process.

 Equations: Know how to balance equations, and practice the common reactions (provided in the
book).

1. Chemical Reactions & Equations

 Reactions of Acids:

o With Metals: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen.

o With Bases: Acid + Base → Salt + Water.

o With Ammonium Salts: Produces salt, water, and ammonia gas.

 Redox Reactions: Metals like magnesium can displace less reactive metals from their compounds
(displacement reactions). Reduction of metal oxides using carbon is another key redox process.

 Equations: Know how to balance equations, and practice the common reactions (provided in the
book).

2. Metals and the Reactivity Series

 Reactions with Water/Steam:

o Group I Metals (like sodium, potassium) react vigorously with water to form alkalis and
hydrogen.

o Group II Metals react similarly but less violently.

 Reactivity Series: Highly reactive metals like potassium react with water, while less reactive ones
like copper don’t.

 Extraction of Metals: Less reactive metals (like iron) are extracted by reduction with carbon,
while more reactive metals (like aluminum) need electrolysis.

3. Salts and their Preparation

 Insoluble Salts: Made by mixing two solutions, producing a precipitate.

o Example: BaCl2(aq)+MgSO4(aq)→BaSO4(s)+MgCl2(aq)BaCl_2(aq) + MgSO_4(aq) →

 Soluble Salts: Made using titration or excess method (adding excess metal or base to the acid
and filtering out the unreacted substance).

4. Organic Chemistry

 Alkanes and Alkenes: Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons used as fuels (e.g., methane). Alkenes
are unsaturated and used to make polymers like polyethylene.

 Cracking: Converts large hydrocarbons into smaller, more useful ones.

 Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids: Ethanol is used as a fuel, solvent, and in making esters.
Carboxylic acids (like ethanoic acid) are weak acids.

5. Electrolysis
  Extraction of Metals: Used for reactive metals like aluminum, where electricity breaks down
molten compounds.

o Example: Electrolysis of Al_2O_3 yields aluminum at the cathode.

 Electroplating and Refining: Coating metals and purifying copper via electrolysis.

6. Rates of Reaction & Catalysts

 Factors affecting rates: Temperature, concentration, surface area, and the use of catalysts (which
lower activation energy).

7. Air and Water

 Air Composition: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, small amounts of carbon dioxide and noble gases.

 Water Treatment: Filtration and chlorination remove impurities.

 Rusting: Iron + oxygen + water → rust. Prevented by painting, galvanizing, or using sacrificial
metals.

8. Acids, Bases, and pH

 pH Scale: Measures acidity/alkalinity. Acids have pH < 7, bases > 7.

 Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water. Know common neutralization reactions (e.g.,
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water).

9. Periodic Table

 Groups:

o Group I (Alkali Metals): Reactivity increases down the group.

o Group VII (Halogens): Reactivity decreases down the group. Displacement reactions
occur between halogens and halides.

10. Tests for Ions and Gases

 Flame Tests:

o Lithium: Red

o Sodium: Yellow
 o Potassium: Lilac

o Copper: Green

 Test for Gases:

o Hydrogen: “Pop” sound with lighted splint.

o Oxygen: Relights a glowing splint.

o Carbon Dioxide: Turns limewater milky.

11. Industrial Processes

 Haber Process: Produces ammonia by combining nitrogen and hydrogen under high pressure
and temperature, using an iron catalyst.

 Contact Process: Produces sulfuric acid from sulfur dioxide.

12. Structure of Atoms and Bonding

 Ionic Bonding: Between metals and non-metals (transfer of electrons).

 Covalent Bonding: Between non-metals (sharing of electrons).

 Metallic Bonding: Sea of delocalized electrons around metal cations.

13. Energy Changes in Reactions

 Exothermic: Releases energy (e.g., combustion).

 Endothermic: Absorbs energy (e.g., photosynthesis).

14. Environmental Chemistry

 Greenhouse Gases: Carbon dioxide and methane contribute to global warming.

 Acid Rain: Caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolving in rainwater.