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Solar Energy Assignment Six

The document is an assignment for a Bachelor of Science in Education at Muni University, focusing on heat transfer concepts such as conduction, convection, and radiation. It includes definitions, explanations of heat conduction mechanisms, and derivations of heat transfer equations in various geometries, including bars, cylindrical shells, and spherical shells. Additionally, it discusses thermos-conductivity and thermos-diffusivity, highlighting their significance in construction engineering.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
26 views14 pages

Solar Energy Assignment Six

The document is an assignment for a Bachelor of Science in Education at Muni University, focusing on heat transfer concepts such as conduction, convection, and radiation. It includes definitions, explanations of heat conduction mechanisms, and derivations of heat transfer equations in various geometries, including bars, cylindrical shells, and spherical shells. Additionally, it discusses thermos-conductivity and thermos-diffusivity, highlighting their significance in construction engineering.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MUNI UNIVERSITY

Bachelor of science with Education

Faculty of Science
Department of Physics

Yerindabo Anthony
2022/U/SMP/00286

2201200286

YEAR III SEMESTER II

ASSIGNMENT SIX

Lecturer
Dr. E. Bwayo

March 16, 2025


TASK

1. a) Define the following terms:


i) conduction

Conduction is the process of molecular heat transfer by micro-particles


(molecules, atoms, ions, etc.) in a medium with a non-uniform tempera-
ture distribution.

ii) convection

Convection is the process of heat transfer by displacing the macroscopic


elements of a medium (molar volumes).

iii) radiation

Radiation is the process of heat transfer from one body to another by


electromagnetic waves (or quanta).

b) Explain the mechanism of heat conduction through solids

Heat conduction in solids occurs at the molecular level, where higher-energy


(hotter) atoms vibrate and transfer energy to neighboring atoms through
molecular collisions. For metals, free electrons also contribute significantly
to heat conduction.

c) The heat flow along a ”bar” between two heat reservoirs at TA , TB is shown
in Figure below. If the heat transfer rate Q̇, is a function of the temperature
of the two reservoirs,

Show that as TA − TB −→ 0, the rate of heat transfer is given by;


dT
Q̇ = −kA
dx

1
The heat transfer rate Q̇ is given by
Q̇ = f2 (TA , TB )

It seems reasonable if we postulate that Q̇ should depend on the temperature


difference (TA − TB ) is zero, then the heat transfer should also be zero. The
temperature can therefore be expressed as
Q̇ = f2 [ (TA − TB ), TA , bar geometry, br properties]

If we consider f2 = 0 if TA = TB . Using MacLaurin series expansion, as follows:


∂f
f (∆T ) = f (0) = |0 ∆T + .........
∂(∆T )
If we define ∆T = TA − TB and f = f2 , we find that for small (TA − TB )
∂f2
f2 (TA − TB ) = Q = f2 (0) + |T −T =0 (TA − TB ) + .......
∂(TA − TB ) A B

We know that Q̇ > 0 if TA > TB or ∂(TA∂f−T


2
B)
> 0 From the generalization made
bt Fourier for a bar,the derivative takes the form
∂f2 kA
=
∂(TA − TB ) L
where k is the proportionality factor that is a function of the material and the
temperature, A is the cross-sectional area and Lis the length of the bar.
In the limit for any temperature difference ∆T across the length ∆x as both
L, TA − TB −→ 0, we can say
(TA − TB ) (TA − TB ) dT
Q̇ = kA = −kA = −kA
L L dx

d) The figure above shows a slab bounded by temperatures T1 and T2 with Tem-
perature boundary conditions as shown above.

2
i) Calculate the temperature distribution and hence sketch a graph for vari-
ation of T with x

The temperature field for quasi-one-dimensional steady state is given by

d2
 
1 dA dT
=0
dx2 A dx dx
The area A is not a function of x, i.e. A = constant. Equation above thus
becomes
d2 T
=0
dx2
Integrating the equation yields
dT
=a
dx
And
T = ax + b
where a and b in the above expression are constants. Applying boundary
conditions as T (o) = T1 ; T (L) = T2
The condition T (0) = T1 implies that b = T1 . the condition T2 = T (L)
implies that T2 = aL + T1 , or
T2 − T1
a=
L
The expression for temperature can then be written as
 
T2 − T1
T (x) = T1 + x
L
This linear variation in temperature for a situation in which T1 > T2 .

ii) Deduce an expression for the heat flux

The heat fluxq̇is given by


 
dT T2 − T1
q̇ = −k = −k = constant
dx L

2. a) In a Steady Quasi-One-Dimensional heat flow in a cylindrical shell, the tem-


perature depends only on radius (r)

3
i) Show that the heat transfer equation is written as:
 
d dT
k A(r) = 0whereA = 2πr
dr dr

The general form of the heat conduction equation in steady-state (no time
dependence) is given by:
 
d dT
kA = 0,
dr dr

where:
- k is the thermal conductivity,
- A is the cross-sectional area through which heat is being conducted,
- T is the temperature.
For a cylindrical object, the cross-sectional area A is given by:

A = 2πr,

where r is the radius of the cylinder.


We substitute A(r) = 2πr into the heat conduction equation:
 
d dT
k(2πr) = 0.
dr dr

Since k and 2π are constants, we can factor them out:


 
d dT
k · 2π r = 0.
dr dr

ince k and 2π are non-zero constants, we can simplify this to:


 
d dT
r = 0.
dr dr

Thus, we can express the heat transfer equation as:


 
d dT
k A(r) = 0,
dr dr

4
ii) Show that the heat transfer rate Q̇ is given by;

(T1 − T2 )
Q̇ = 2πk
ln(r2 /r1 )

To show that the heat transfer rate Q̇ is given by

(T1 − T2 )
Q̇ = 2πk   ,
ln rr21
we start from the heat conduction equation derived earlier:
We have the steady-state heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordi-
nates:
 
d dT
r = 0.
dr dr
Integrating this equation gives:
dT
r = C1 ,
dr
where C1 is a constant of integration.
Rearranging gives:
dT C1
= .
dr r
Integrating again with respect to r:

T (r) = C1 ln(r) + C2 ,
where C2 is another constant of integration.
We apply boundary conditions at r = r1 and r = r2 :
- Let T (r1 ) = T1
- Let T (r2 ) = T2

Substituting these into the equation gives us two equations:

T1 = C1 ln(r1 ) + C2 ,
T2 = C1 ln(r2 ) + C2 .
Subtract the two equations to eliminate C2 :

T1 − T2 = C1 (ln(r1 ) − ln(r2 )).


Using the property of logarithms, we can rewrite this as:
 
r1
T1 − T2 = C1 ln .
r2
Rearranging gives:

5
T1 − T2
C1 =  .
ln rr12

The heat transfer rate Q̇ through a cylindrical surface is given by:


dT
Q̇ = −kA
,
dr
where A = 2πr. Substituting A and dT
dr
:
 
C1
Q̇ = −k(2πr) = −2πkC1 .
r
Now substituting C1 :
 
T1 − T2 
Q̇ = −2πk    .
ln rr21
   
r1 r2
Since ln r2
= − ln r1
, we can write:

(T1 − T2 )
Q̇ = 2πk   .
ln rr21
Thus, we have shown that the heat transfer rate is given by:

(T1 − T2 )
Q̇ = 2πk   .
ln rr21

b) A spherical shell with area A(r) = 4πr2 has specified temperatures T (r1 ) = T1
and T (r2 ) = T2 , as shown in Figure.

i) Derive the equation for the temperature profile in the radiative field
 
d 2 dT
r =0
dr dr

For a spherical shell, the heat conduction equation in steady-state is given


by:  
d dT
A(r) = 0,
dr dr

6
where A(r) = 4πr2 is the surface area of the sphere.
Substitute A(r) into the equation:
 
d 2 dT
4πr = 0.
dr dr
Since 4π is a constant, we can factor it out:
 
d 2 dT
4π r = 0.
dr dr
Dividing both sides by 4π:
 
d 2 dT
r = 0.
dr dr

ii) Show that in non-dimensional form, the temperature distribution is given


by:
T1 − T 1 − (r1 /r)
=
T1 − T2 1 − (r1 /r2 )

From the equation derived in part (i), we integrate:


dT
r2 = C1 ,
dr
where C1 is a constant of integration. Rearranging gives:
dT C1
= 2.
dr r
3. Integrating Again: Integrating again with respect to r:
C1
T (r) = − + C2 ,
r
where C2 is another constant of integration. We apply the boundary
conditions:
- At r = r1 , T (r1 ) = T1
- At r = r2 , T (r2 ) = T2
Substituting these into the equation gives us two equations:
C1
T1 = − + C2 ,
r1
C1
T2 = − + C2 .
r2
Subtract the two equations to eliminate C2 :
 
1 1
T1 − T2 = −C1 − .
r1 r2

7
Rearranging gives:
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T2 )r1 r2
C1 = −   =− 1 .
1
− 1 (r2 − r1 )
r1 r2

Substitute C1 back into the temperature equation:


(T1 − T2 )r1 r2
T (r) = + C2 .
(r2 − r1 )r
To find C2 , we can use one of the boundary conditions, say at r = r1 :
(T1 − T2 )r1 r2
T1 = + C2 .
(r2 − r1 )r1
This simplifies to:
(T1 − T2 )r2
C2 = T1 − .
(r2 − r1 )
The temperature distribution can be expressed as:
(r2 − r)
T (r) = T2 + (T1 − T2 ) .
(r2 − r1 )
To express this in non-dimensional form, we define:
T1 − T
θ= .
T1 − T2
Rearranging gives:
T = T1 − θ(T1 − T2 ).
Substituting r into the equation gives:
T1 − T (r2 − r)
= .
T1 − T2 (r2 − r1 )
This can be rewritten as:
1 − rr1

T1 − T
=  .
T1 − T2 1 − rr12

Thus, we have shown that the non-dimensional temperature distribution


is given by:
1 − rr1

T1 − T
=  .
T1 − T2 1 − r1 r2

3. a) Define the following:


i) thermos-conductivity

Thermos-conductivity is a material property that quantifies the ability of


a material to conduct heat. It is defined as the amount of heat Q that
passes through a unit area A of the material in a unit time t when there
is a temperature difference ∆T across a thickness d.

8
ii) thermos-diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of the time derivative of temperature


to its curvature, quantifying the rate at which temperature concavity is
”smoothed out”.

iii) outline the physical significance of thermos-diffusivity in construction en-


gineering

* Heat Transfer Analysis: Thermos-diffusivity is crucial in understand-


ing how quickly heat can move through building materials. This is
important for designing energy-efficient buildings, as it affects heating
and cooling loads.
* Thermal Comfort: In construction engineering, maintaining thermal
comfort for occupants is essential. Materials with appropriate thermos-
diffusivity can help regulate indoor temperatures, reducing the need
for mechanical heating and cooling systems.
* Material Selection: When selecting materials for construction, thermos-
diffusivity helps engineers choose materials that will respond appro-
priately to temperature changes. For example, materials with high
thermos-diffusivity can quickly adapt to temperature fluctuations, which
is beneficial in climates with significant temperature variations.
* Thermal Mass: Materials with high thermal mass (high density and
specific heat) and appropriate thermos-diffusivity can absorb and store
heat during the day and release it at night, helping to stabilize indoor
temperatures and reduce energy consumption.
* Fire Safety: Understanding thermos-diffusivity is also important in
fire safety. Materials with low thermos-diffusivity can slow down the
spread of heat, providing more time for evacuation and reducing fire
damage.
* Building Codes and Standards: Many building codes and standards
incorporate thermal performance criteria based on thermos-diffusivity,
ensuring that buildings are constructed to minimize energy use and
enhance occupant comfort.
b) The figure shows heat is being conducted in the x direction of the ∆x, ∆y,
∆z volume element in size. For conduction in the x direction, Fourier’s law of
heat conduction through solids gives;

9
For conduction in the x direction, Fourier’s law of heat conduction through
solids gives;
∂T
qx = −kA
∂x
i) write down the heat balance equation for the cube

rate of heat input + rate of heat generation = rate of heat output + rate
of heat accumulation

Rate of Heat Input:


∂T
rate of heat input = qx |x = −k(∆y∆z) |x
∂x
Rate of Heat Output:
∂T
qx |x+∆x = −k(∆y∆z) |x+∆x
∂x
Rate of Heat Accumulation:
∂T
rate of heat accumulation = (∆x∆y∆z)ρcp
∂t
Rate of Heat Generation:
rate of heat generation = (∆x∆y∆z)q
Thus, we can write the final form of the equation as:
h i
−k ∂T ∂x x
− ∂T
∂x x+∆x ∂T
= ρcp
∆x ∂t

ii) estimate the rates for heat input, heat generation, heat output and rate
of heat accumulation

Rate of Heat Input:


∂T
Q̇in = −kA
∂x
Rate of Heat Output:
∂T
Q̇out = −kA
∂x x+∆x

Rate of Heat Generation:


Q̇gen = qV = q(∆x∆y∆z)
Rate of Heat Accumulation:
∂T ∂T
Q̇acc = ρcp V = ρcp (∆x∆y∆z)
∂t ∂t

10
c) Show that the coefficient of thermal diffusivity is given by
k
α=
ρcp

To show that the coefficient of thermal diffusivity α is given by the formula


k
α= ,
ρcp
we start by defining the terms involved in the equation:
- k is the thermal conductivity of the material (W/m·K).
- ρ is the density of the material (kg/m³).
- cp is the specific heat capacity of the material (J/kg·K).

The heat conduction equation (Fourier’s law) in one dimension can be ex-
pressed as:
∂T ∂ 2T
=α 2,
∂t ∂x
where:
- ∂T
∂t
is the rate of change of temperature with respect to time,
∂2T
- ∂x2 is the spatial temperature gradient.

Relating Thermal Conductivity, Density, and Specific Heat From the definition
of thermal conductivity, we have:
∂T
q = −k ,
∂x
where q is the heat flux (W/m²).
The rate of heat transfer into a volume can also be expressed in terms of the
material’s properties:
∂T
Rate of heat transfer = ρcp V ,
∂t
where V is the volume of the material.

Using the definitions:


- The heat conduction equation can be rearranged to express the rate of tem-
perature change in terms of thermal conductivity:
∂T 1
= · q.
∂t ρcp
Substituting Fourier’s Law:
- Substitute q = −k ∂T
∂x
into the equation:
 
∂T 1 ∂T
= −k .
∂t ρcp ∂x

11
- Rearranging gives:
∂T k ∂T
=− .
∂t ρcp ∂x
- Comparing this with the heat conduction equation:
∂T ∂ 2T
=α 2,
∂t ∂x
we can identify that:
k
α= .
ρcp
c) Derive expressions for rates of temperature change in:
i) one dimension

The rate of temperature change in one dimension is given by the heat


conduction equation (Fourier’s Law) with time dependence:

∂T ∂ 2T
=α 2
∂t ∂x
where:
- T is temperature,
- t is time,
- x is the spatial coordinate,
- α = ρckp is the thermal diffusivity, with k as thermal conductivity, ρ as
density, and cp as specific heat capacity.

ii) three dimensions

In three dimensions, the heat conduction equation extends to:


 2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T

∂T ∂ T
=α + + 2
∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
or using the Laplacian notation:
∂T
= α∇2 T
∂t
where:
- ∇2 T is the Laplacian operator applied to temperature,
- x, y, z are spatial coordinates,
- α is the thermal diffusivity.

4. a) what is a thin film?

A thin film is a layer of fluid (liquid or gas) with a small thickness relative to
its lateral dimensions. It forms on solid surfaces due to adhesion, condensa-
tion, or surface tension effects. Thin films are significant in heat transfer as
they influence thermal resistance and convective heat transfer rates.

12
b) Outline the mechanism of heat flow through fluids

Heat flows through fluids by three primary mechanisms:


ˆ Conduction: Heat transfer due to molecular collisions and diffusion, occur-
ring in stagnant or slow-moving fluids.
ˆ Convection: Heat transfer due to bulk fluid motion, classified into:
– Natural (free) convection: Caused by density differences due to temperature
gradients.
– Forced convection: Induced by external means such as fans or pumps.
ˆ Radiation: Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, occurring even
in vacuum without a medium

c) Distinguish between streamlines and turbulent flow during the convective heat
transfer process

ˆ Streamline (Laminar) Flow:


– Fluid particles move in parallel layers without disruption.
– Velocity is constant at a given point over time.
– Occurs at lower Reynolds numbers (Re < 2000).
– Lower heat transfer rates due to minimal mixing.
ˆ Turbulent Flow:
– Characterized by chaotic and irregular fluid motion.
– Velocity varies unpredictably at a given point.
– Occurs at higher Reynolds numbers (Re > 4000).
– Higher heat transfer rates due to enhanced mixing of fluid layers.

13

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