WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER?

Heat is a type of energy that moves from hot things to cooler things. It can move in three
main ways:

1. Conduction: This happens in solids when the energy moves between particles.

2. Convection: This occurs in fluids like liquids and gases when the particles themselves
move, carrying the energy with them.

3. Radiation: This is the fastest way heat can move, where it travels through space
without needing anything in between to carry it.

So, heat can spread from one thing to another by touching (conduction), by moving
particles (convection), or even through empty space (radiation).

Example:

Imagine a hot cup of coffee cooling down. The heat is first transferred through the cup
(conduction), then through the air around it (convection), and finally emitted as infrared
radiation.
Difference between Conduction, Convection & Radiation
Conduction Convection Radiation

Heat transfer due to Heat transfer without

Heat Transfer due to
density any
Temperature difference
difference medium

Due to free electron or

vibration Electromagnetic
Actual motion of particles
radiation
motion of molecules

Heat transfer in solid Heat transfer in fluids

body (in (Liquid +
All
mercury also) gas)

Fast process
Slow process Slow process
( 3 ×10 8 m/sec )

Irregular path Irregular path Straight line (like light)

Steady and variable state

Imagine a metal rod called AB. One end, A, is put into a box with a heater, while the
other end, B, is left open. The rod is wrapped with something that doesn't let heat
escape sideways, like cotton or felt. We put three thermometers on the rod at three
different spots labeled (1), (2), and (3). At the beginning, everything is at room
temperature, and all three thermometers show the same room temperature.

Then, we turn on the heater. End A starts to warm up first, and at the same time, the
heat moves through the rod towards end B.
As the heat reaches each section, the temperatures at those spots start to rise, with T1
being higher than T2, and T2 being higher than T3. This is called a changing state. In
this state, the heat from end A keeps getting absorbed at each section, and the
temperatures keep going up as time passes.

After some time, end B's temperature becomes the same as the surrounding
temperature, so it stops changing. This means the heat being absorbed at different
sections of the rod also stops changing. There won't be any more rise in temperatures at
any section. This is called a constant state, or a steady state. In this steady state, the
temperatures at each section stay the same over time.

CONDUCTION
Fourier’s law states that the negative gradient of temperature and the time rate of heat
transfer is proportional to the area at right angles of that gradient through which the heat
flows. Fourier’s law is the other name of the law of heat conduction.

( ddtθ ) =−KA ( dTdx )

x

dθ
where, =¿ Rate of heat flow, K=¿ Conductivity of substance (property of medium)
dt
A=¿ Area of cross section

 ( ddtθ ) is the amount of heat flow in x-direction per unit time through a given
x
crosssection area ' A '.

 ( dTdx ) is the temperature gradient at the place where ( ddtθ ) is measured.

 -ve sign indicates that heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature.

Thermal (temperature) gradient :

The rate of decrease in temperature with distance from hot end of the rod is known as
temperature gradient or in the direction of heat energy flow, the rate of fall in
temperature w.r.t. distance is called as temperature gradient. It is denoted by −dT /dx

Thermal conductivity (K ) : It's depends on nature of material.

 For an ideal or perfect conductor of heat the value of K=∞

 For an ideal or perfect bad conductor or insulator the value of K=0
 For cooking the food, low specific heat and high conductivity utensils are most
suitable.
Heat flow from a uniform rod at steady state :

 In steady state temperature of each element of the rod becomes constant w.r.t.
to time i.e. rate of heat flow at energy cross-section of the rod will be same.

dΘ
In steady state is same for each element
dt

dθ dT
=KA
dt dx

∴ for uniform rod ( K∧ A same for each element)

⇒
dT
dx
is same ⇒
dT ΔT d θ
=
dx Δx
⇒
dt
=kA
ΔT
Δx ( )
Example.
¿ a steady state with a thermal conductivity of 0.1 watts per meter per Kelvin∧an area of 8

square centimeters :

(a) Determinethe position' x ' where thetemperature ' T ' is 60 degrees Celsius .

(b)Calculate the rate of change of temperature ' (dθ/ dt )' .

Solution: (a) Steady state

∴ Change same, kA ( 100−60

x ) =kA (
10 )
100−0

⇒ 400=x ×100 ⇒ x=4 m

−4
dθ ΔT 0.1 ×8 ×10 (100−0)
(b) =kA =
dt Δx 10
¿

Example.

What is the amount of heat lost per second when steam at 373 Kelvin flows through a
tube with a radius of 5 centimeters and a length of 2 meters? The tube has a thickness
of 5 millimeters and is made of a material with a thermal conductivity of 390 watts per
meter per Kelvin. The surrounding temperature is 0 degrees Celsius.

KA ( T 1−T 2) t
Solution: Using the relation Q=
L

Here, heat is lost through the cylindrical surface of the tube.

A=2 π r (radius of the tube) (length of the tube) ¿ 2 π × 0.05× 2=0.2 π m2

−1 −1
K=390 W m K
∘
T 1=373 K , T 2=0 C=273 K , L=5 mm=0.005 m and t=1 s
 390× 0.2 π ×(373−273)×1 390 ×0.2 π × 100
∴ Q= = =49 × 105 J .
0.005 0.005

For non-uniform rods :

( ddtθ ) =( ddtθ )
1 2

K1 A ( dTdx ) =K A ( dTdx ) (eg.)

1
2
2

dθ dT
=KA
dt dx

dT
A↑∴ ↓
dx

Example. Thick spherical shell. Find rate of heat flow?

 2
dθ 4π x
Solution : =P=−K dT
dt dx
r2 T2
dx −K 4 π
∫❑
r1 x
2
=

¿
P ∫T 1
r1 r2[
❑ dT 1 1 −K 4 π
− =
P ]
( T 1−T 2 ) ¿

r1 r2
∴ P=K 4 π
r 2−r 1
( T 1−T 2 )

Example.

A spherical shell with an inner radius 'a' and an outer radius '4a' is constructed from a
material of constant thermal conductivity 'K'. Inside the shell, the temperature is kept at
2T₀, while outside the shell it is T₀. Determine: (a) the steady-state rate of heat flow out
of the shell, (b) the temperature at a radial distance of 3a/2 from the center of the shell.
Assume steady-state conditions.
Solution : In the steady state, the net outward thermal current is constant, and does not
depend on the radial position.

−C1
Thermal current, C 1= ( dQdt )=−K ⋅ (4 π r ) dTdr ⇒ dTdr = 4 πK r1 +C
2
2 2

4a
At r =a , T =2 T 0 and r =4 a ,T =T 0 ⇒ T = T
r 0

dQ
(a) =8 π aKT
dt

(b) T (r=3 a/2)=4 T 0 /3

Example.

dθ
?
dt

Solution: Method-1: Req .= ∫ dR=∫

dx
=
ln b
k 2 π × L 2 π kL a ()
 d θ ( T 1−T 2 ) 2 π kL
=
dt
ln ⁡()
b
a

dθ 2 π kL
Method 2 : =P=−k dT
dt dx

dθ
Solve & get
dt

THERMAL RESISTANCE
From equation
Δ Q KA ( T 1−T 2 ) where Δ Q =¿ rate of heat flow ¿ thermal current ¿ i
=
Δt L Δt
(say)

L T 1−T 2 ΔT
= =
KA i i

ΔV
which is analogous to Ohm's law R= ; where R is the electrical resistance, ΔV is
i
potential difference and i the electric current.

L
So, =Rth is known as the thermal resistance.
KA

1
The reciprocal of thermal conductivity, i.e., is called thermal resistivity or thermal
K
specific resistance.

Note :

In thermodynamics heat current, temperature difference, and thermal resistance

resembles, electric current, potential difference and electrical resistance respectively in
electrodynamics.

SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION

The thermal resistance of a body is a measure of its opposition of the flow of heat
L
through it. R=
KA

 Heat flow through slabs in series :

 R=R1 + R2
L1 + L2 L1 L2
= +
K eq A K1 A K2 A

Equivalent Thermal conductivity of the system is

L 1 + L2 Σ Li
K eq = =
L1 L L
+ 2 Σ i
K1 K 2 Ki

equivalent to

K 1 A1 + K 2 A 2 Σ K i A i
=
A1 + A 2 Σ Ai

Example. Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 8 m2 of a brick wall 6 cm

thick in 1 hour if the temperature on one side is 8∘ C and on the other side is 28∘ C .
(Thermal conductivity of brick ¿ 0.13 W m−1 K−1 )

28−8 −1
Temperature gradient ¿ −2
K m and t=3600 s
6 ×10
 28−8
∴ Q=kAt × temperature gradient ¿ 0.13 ×8 × 3600× −2
=312000 J
6× 10

Example. Two parallel plates A and B are joined together to form a compound plate
(figure). The thicknesses of the plates are 4.0 cm and 2.5 cm respectively and the area
of cross-section is 100 cm2 for each plate. The thermal conductivities are
−0
K A =200 W /m C for the plate A and KB=400 W /m−¿ C ¿ for the plate B. The outer
surface of the plate A is maintained at 100∘ C and the outer surface of the plate B is
maintained at 0∘ C . Find (a) the rate of heat flow through any cross-section, (b) the
temperature at the interface and (c) the equivalent thermal conductivity of the compound
plate.

Solution : (a) Let the temperature of the interface be θ .

The area of cross-section of each pate is A=100 cm2=0.01 m2 .

The thicknesses are x A=0.04 m and x B =0.025 m

1 xA
The thermal resistance of the plate A is R1=
KA A

1 xB
and that of the plate B is R2=
KB A

The equivalent thermal resistance is

R=R 1+ R 2=
(
1 xA xB
+
A KA KB )
(i)

ΔQ θ1−θ 2 A ( θ 1−θ2 )
Thus, = =
Δt R x A/ K A+ xB/ K B
 ( 0.01 m2) ( 100 ∘ C )
¿ =3810 W
(0.04 m)/ ( 200 W /m−∘ C ) +(0.025 m)/ ( 400 W /m−∘ C )

ΔQ A ( θ−θ1 )
(b) We have =
Δt x B/ KB

( 0.01 m2 )( θ−0 ∘ C )
or, 3810 W =
(0.025 m)/ ( 400 W /m−∘ C )

or, θ=25∘ C

(c) If K is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the compound plate, its thermal
resistance is

1 xA + xB
R=
A K

Comparing with (i),

x A+ x B x A xB
= +
K K A KB
x A+ xB ∘
or, K = =248 W /m− C
x A /K A + x B / K B

Example. Consider two thin metallic spherical shells with radii r 1 and r 2 ( r 1 <r 2 ) centered
at the same point. The space between the shells is filled with a material of thermal
conductivity K . The inner shell is kept at temperature θ1, and the outer shell at
temperature θ2 ( θ1 <θ2 ) . Determine the rate of radial heat flow through the material.

Solution :
Let us draw two spherical shells of radii x and x +dx concentric with the given system.
Let then temperatures at these shells be θ and θ+ d θ respectively. The amount of heat
flowing radially inward through the material between x +dx is
2
ΔQ K 4 π x d θ
=
Δt dx

θ2 ΔQ r dx
Thus, K 4 π ∫ θ d θ= ∫ 2

1
Δt r x 2 1

or, K 4 π ( θ2 −θ1 )= (
ΔQ 1 1
−
Δt r 1 r 2 )
ΔQ 4 π Kr 1 r 2 ( θ2 −θ1 )
or, =
Δt r 2−r 1

Junction :

T 1−T T −T 2 T −T 1 T −T 1
(eg.) = ⇒ + =0
R1 R2 R1 R2

dθ
If there is no source or sink at junction then sum of outgoing =0
dt

(eg.) Find temprature at junction

 T 1−T T −T 2 T −T 3 + T −T 4
+ + + =0
R1 R2 R3 R4

Example.

Three rods, each with a length of 1 meter, a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimeter,
and made of aluminum, copper, and steel respectively, are kept at temperatures of 12
degrees Celsius, 4 degrees Celsius, and 50 degrees Celsius at their individual ends.
Determine the temperature at the point where they are joined together. [Given thermal
conductivities: Copper (K_Cu) = 400 W/m-K, Aluminum (K_Al) = 200 W/m-K, Steel
(K_Steel) = 50 W/m-K]

4
L 1 10
Solution : R Al = = =
KA 200 ×10−4 200
4 4
10 10
Similarly Rsteel = and Rcopper =
50 400

Let temperature of common junction ¿ T

then from Kirchoff;s current laws, i Al + isteel +i Cu =0

 T −12 T −51 T −4
⇒ + + =0
R Al R steel R Cu

⇒ (T −12)200+(T −50)50+(T −4 )400=0

⇒ 4( T −12)+(T −50)+ 8( T −4)=0

⇒ 13 T =48+50+32=130
∘
⇒ T =10 C

Example.

T −100 T −0 T −100+2 T
Solution : + =20 ⇒ =20 ⇒ 3T =100+ 40 R
2R R 2R

100+40 R
T=
3
Example.

Find time after which temperature of water become 50∘ C from 0∘ C ?

dθ
Solution: Here is not constant it is variable.
dt

Now let at a time dt their be a temperature T .

d θ kA dT
= (100−T )=ms
dt t dt

kA d 50 dT
∫ 0 dt=∫ 0
Lms (100−T )

kA
t=−l n[100−50]+ ln ⁡[100−0]
Lms

Lms ⁡l n 2
t=
kA

Example.

Two rods made of material X and three rods made of material Y are connected as
depicted in the diagram. All rods have the same length and cross-sectional area. Given
that end A is held at 60 degrees Celsius and junction E is at 10 degrees Celsius,
determine the temperatures at junctions B, C, and D. The thermal conductivity of
material X is 0.92 in CGS units, and that of material Y is 0.46 in CGS units.

1 1 R X K Y 0.46 1
Solution : R X ∝ , RY ∝ ⇒ = = =
KX K Y RY K X 0.92 2

Let R X =R ∴ R Y =2 R

The total resistance ΣR=RY +¿ effective resistance in the bridge

 2R×4 R 4 10
Σ R=2 R+ =2 R+ R= R∧¿
2 R+4 R 3 3

2 1
Further I BCE (2 R)=I BDE (4 R) and I BCE + I BDE =I ⇒ I BCE = I and I BDE = I
3 3
∘
For A and Bθ A−θ B =60 −θ B ⇒ 60−θ B=2 R × I

For B and C

2 2
θ B−θC = (I × R)… (ii) θ C −θ E= × R× I
3 3
(i)

For A and E

10
θ A −θ E=60−10=50 ⇒ (R × I )=50
3
∴ R × I =15
∴ θ A −θB −2× 15=30 , θ B=60−30=30∘ C ,θ B−θ C = ( 23 )× 15=10
∴ θC =30−10=20∘ C Obviously, θC =θ D =20∘ C

Example.

Two plates with identical areas are touching each other. One plate has a thickness of 2.0
centimeters, and the other has a thickness of 5.0 centimeters. The external surface of
the first plate is at -20 degrees Celsius, while the external surface of the second plate is
at 20 degrees Celsius. Determine the temperature of the contact surface in these
scenarios: (i) if the plates are made of the same material, (ii) if the plates have thermal
conductivities in a ratio of 2:5.

Solution : Rate of flow of heat in the plates is

 Q K 1 A ( θ1−θ ) K 2 A ( θ−θ2 )
= = ..
t L1 L2
(i)
∘ ∘
(i) Here θ1=−20 C ,θ 2=20 C ,

L1=2 cm=0.02 m , L2=5 cm=0.05 m and K 1=K 2 =K

KA(−20−θ) KA ⁡(θ−20)
∴ equation (i) becomes =
0.02 0.05

∴ 5(−20−θ)=2̇(θ−20)

⇒−100−5θ=2 θ−40

⇒ 7 θ=−60
∘
⇒ θ=−8.6 C

K1 2 2
(ii) = or K 1= K 2
K2 5 5

∴ from equation (i)

2/5 K 2 A (−20−θ) K 2 A (θ−20)

= −20−θ=θ−20 or −2θ=0
0.02 0.05

∴ θ=0 ∘ C

GROWTH OF ICE ON LAKES

In winter atmospheric temperature falls below 0∘ C and water in the lake start freezing.

Let at time t thickness of ice on the surface of the lake ¿ x and air temperature ¿−θ∘ C

The temperature of water in contact with the lower surface of ice ¿ 0∘ C

Let area of the lake ¿ A

[0−(−θ)]
Heat escaping through ice in time dt is dQ=KA dt
x

Due to escape of this heat increasing extra thickness of ice ¿ dx

Mass of this extra thickness of ice is m=ρV =ρ A.dx

dQ=mL=( ρ A . dx )L

θ ρL
∴ KA dt =¿ A.dx ¿ L⇒ dt= xdx
x Kθ

ρL x 1 ρL 2
So time taken by ice to grow a thickness x is t= ∫ 0 xdx= x
Kθ 2 Kθ

So time taken by ice to grow from thickness x 1 to thickness x 2 is

1 ρL 2
t=t 2−t 1= ( x −x 1 2 ) and t ∝ ( x 2 2−x 1 2 )
2 KT 2
2 2 2
Time taken to double and triple the thickness ratio t 1 :t 2 :t 3 :: 1 :2 :3

So t 1 :t 2 :t 3 :: 1: 4 :9

THERMAL RADIATION
Radiation is when heat moves from one spot to another without needing anything in
between. Imagine heating something and putting it in a vacuum (a space with no air), it
still loses heat even though there's no material around it. Heat can't escape through
conduction or convection in this case because those need something to travel through.
This escaping of heat without a material is called radiation.
Radiation is how the heat from the Sun gets to the Earth. It has some important
properties:

(a) Heat energy travels in straight lines, so if you put something in its path, it makes a
shadow.

(b) It can travel through empty space, like in a vacuum.

(c) The strength of the heat radiation weakens the farther it travels, following a certain
rule.

(d) Just like light, heat radiation can be changed in a certain way as it passes through
some materials.

All these things show that heat radiation is very similar to light—it's also a type of
electromagnetic wave, but with a longer wavelength than visible light.

There are two main types of thermal radiation.

 When radiation passes through any medium then radiations slightly absorbed by
medium according to its absorptive power so temperature of medium slightly
increases.
 Heat radiation are always obtained in infra-red region of electromagnetic wave
spectrum so they are called Infra red rays.

BLACK BODY
Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic
waves.

All bodies continuously radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Even an ice
cube radiates energy, although so little of it is in the form of visible light that an ice cube
cannot be seen in the dark.

The surface of an object plays a significant role in determining how much radiant energy
the object will absorb or emit.
As the thermometers indicate, the temperature of the black block rises at a much faster
rate than that of the silver block. This is because lampblack absorbs about 97 % of the
incident radiant energy, while the silvery surface absorbs only about 10 % . The
remaining part of the incident energy is reflected in each case. We observe the
lampblack as black in color because it reflects so little of the light falling on it, while the
silvery surface looks like a mirror because it reflects so little of the light falling on it, while
the silvery surface looks like a mirror because it reflects so much light. Since the color
black is associated with nearly complete absorption of visible light, the term perfect
blackbody or, simply, blackbody is used when referring to an object that absorbs all the
electromagnetic waves falling on it.

SPECTRAL, EMMISSIVE, ABSORPTIVE AND TRANSMITTIVE POWER OF A GIVEN

BODY SURFACE: Due to incident radiations on the surface of a body following
phenomena occur by which the radiation is divided into three parts. (a) Reflection (b)
Absorption (c) Transmission

 From energy conservation

{¿ Qr +Qa +Qr ⇒
Qr Q a Qr
+ + =1 ⇒ r + a+t=1
Q Q Q

Qr Qa
Reflective Coefficient r = , Absorptive Coefficient a= ,
Q Q

Qt
Transmitive Coefficient t=
Q

r =1 anda=0 , t=0 ⇒ Perfect reflector

a=1 and r =0 , t=0⇒ Ideal absorber (ideal black body)

t=1 and a=0 , r=0⇒ Perfect transmitter

Reflection power (r )=
[ Qr
Q ]
×100 % , Absorption power (a)= [
Qa
Q
×100 % ]
Transmission power (t)=
[ Qt
Q ]
× 100 %

Emitted Radiation :

Due to its own temperature body also emitts radiation (caused by thermal vibration) of
atoms, molecules & dipoles is called emitted radiation.

PREVOST'S THEORY
In simple terms, Prevost's theory in theoretical physics talks about how objects both give
off and take in electromagnetic waves at the same time. When something is at the same
temperature as everything around it, the amount of energy it absorbs from radiation has
to match the amount it gives off over a certain time.

If it absorbed more than it gave off, it would get hotter and not stay the same
temperature. And if it gave off more than it absorbed, it would get cooler. Since
absorption and emission need to balance out, something that's good at absorbing, like
dark fabric, is also good at emitting. On the other hand, something that's bad at
absorbing, like shiny silver, is also bad at emitting.

That's why wearing dark clothes in summer can make people feel hot—they absorb a lot
of sunlight and then release it in all directions. About half of this released heat goes back
towards the body, making you feel warm. Light-colored clothes, on the other hand, are
cooler to wear because they absorb and release less of the sunlight that hits them.

PREVOST'S THEORY OF HEAT ENERGY EXCHANGE

 All bodies absorb as well as emit radiation at ali temperature.

 Rate of emission of radiation depends on nature & temperature of the surface of

body.

 Rate of absorbing radiation depends on nature of surface of the body &

temperature of the surrounding.
 T b >T , then rate of emission > Rate of absorbing \& T b ↓
T b <T , then rate of emission < Rate of absorbing \& T b ↑
T b=T b then rate of emission = Rate of absorbing \& T b , no change.

According to Prevost at every possible temperature (Not absolute temperature) there is

a continuous heat energy exchange between a body and its surrounding and this
exchange carry on for infinite time.

The relation between temperature difference of body with its surrounding decides
whether the body experience cooling effect or heating effect.

When a cold body is placed in the hot surrounding : The body radiates less energy and
absorbs more energy from the surrounding, therefore the temperature of body increases.

When a hot body placed in cooler surrounding : The body radiates more energy and
absorb less energy from the surroundings. Therefore temperature of body decreases.

When the temperature of a body is equal to the temperature of the surrounding

The energy given off by a body in a certain time is the same as the energy it takes in
during that time, so its temperature stays the same.

When a substance is at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin), all its atoms are in their
lowest energy state. This means that the substance cannot emit any radiation at this
temperature, so Prevost's theory of heat exchange doesn't work here. This is why it's
called the limited temperature of Prevost's theory.

Prevost's theory helps us figure out how fast something cools down compared to its
surroundings. We can use it with other laws like Stefan-Boltzmann's law and Newton's
law of cooling.

The absorptive power, or absorptive coefficient 'a', tells us how much radiation a surface
absorbs compared to how much hits it. It's calculated as a ratio: a = Q_a / Q, where Q_a
is the amount absorbed and Q is the amount that hits it. It doesn't have a unit.
For a black body, a = 1, meaning it absorbs all the radiation that hits it.

Emissive power (E) is the amount of heat radiation emitted by a unit area of the surface
in one second at a specific temperature. Its unit is joules per square meter per second
(J/m^2 s).
ΔQ 2
E= : unit is W /m
ΔtA

STEFAN'S LAW
The amount of radiation emitted per second per unit area by a black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Amount of radiation emitted E ∝T 4 where T =¿ temperature of ideal black body (in K )

4
E=σ T This law is true for only ideal black body

SI Unit : E=watt /m2 σ =¿ Stefen's constant ¿ 5.67 ×10−8 watt ¿ m 2 K 4

Dimensions of σ : M 1 L0 T −3 θ−4

Total radiation energy emitted out by surface of area A in time t : If T is constant.

4 4
Ideal black body Q IBB=σA T t and for any other body Q GB=er σA T t

e → emissitivity of surface. It is property of surface

→ 0 ≤ e ≤1

→ e=1 for black body

Stefan's radiation law :

An idealized body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it is called a blackbody. A
blackbody absorbs not only all visible light, but infrared, ultraviolet, and all other
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. It turns out that a good absorber is also a
good emitter of radiation. A blackbody emits more radiant ower per unit surface area
than any real object at the same temperature. The rate at which a blackbody emits
rdiation per unit surface area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature.
4
PBAct Bmil=σ AT

In equation, A is the surface area and T is the surface temperature of the blackbody in
kelvins. Since Stefan's law involves the absolute temperature and not a temperature
difference, ∘ C cannot be substituted. The universal constant σ (Greek letter sigma) is
called Stefan's constant :

σ =5.670 ×10−8 W / ( m2 . K 4 )

The fourth-power temperature dependence implies that the power emitted is extremely
sensitive to temperature changes. If the absolute temperature of a body doubles, the
energy emitted increases by a factor of 24 =16.

Since real bodies are not perfect absorbers and therefore emit less than a blackbody, we
define the emissivity (e) as the ratio of the emitted power of the body to that of a
blackbody at the same temperature. Then Stefan's law becomes.
4
PGray Body =e σ AT

The emissivity ranges from 0 to 1 ; e=1 for a perfect radiator and absorber (a blackbody)
and e=0 for a perfect reflector. The emissivity for polished aluminium, an excellent
reflector, is about 0.05 ; for soot (carbon black) it is about 0.95 .

Example.

A black body is at a temperature of 27 degrees Celsius. Its surface area is 1/11.34.

Determine the power emitted by this black body.

Solution : P=eσ AT 4

1 −8
(1) ×5.67 ×10 ׿
11.34

Example. By what factor is power when temperature is 54 ∘ C ?

Solution : T =54 ∘+273 ⇒327 ∘ K

P new
=eA σ ¿ ¿
P old

Example. Calculate the temperature at which a perfect black body radiates at the rate of
−2 −8 −1 −2 −4
5.67 W cm . Stefan's constant is 5.67 ×10 J s m K .

Solution : Given
−2 +4 −2 −8 −1 −2 −4
E=5.67 W cm =5.67 ×10 W m , σ=5.67 × 10 J s m K
 4 4 E
Using, E=σ T ;T =
σ

[ ] [ ]
1 1
E 4 5.67 ×10+ 4 4 1/ 4
or T = = −8
=( 1012 ) =1000 K
σ 5.67 × 10

Example.

If the temperature of an ideal black body is raised by 50%, what percentage increase will
occur in the amount of radiation emitted from its surface?

Solution : E ∝T 4 and

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
At a given temperature for all bodies the ratio of their spectral emissive power ( e λ ) to
spectral absorptive power ( a i ) is constant and this constant is equal to spectral emissive
power ( Ei ) of the ideal black body at same temperature

eλ
ai
=E i= constant
[][ ]
ei
=
ei
ai 1 a λ 2
= constant e λ ∝a λ

Materials that are good at absorbing heat are also good at giving off heat, and materials
that are bad at absorbing heat are also bad at giving it off.

• When the temperature stays the same, the way an ideal black body gives off heat at
different wavelengths of light stays the same too.

• Scientists confirm Kirchhoff's law with an apparatus called the Rishi apparatus, which
uses a container called a Leslie container.

• The main idea of Kirchhoff's law is that...

Good absorber

⇌ Good emitter

⇌ Bad emitter
Kirchoff’s law : Absorbtivity of a surface is equal to its emissivity.

(e=a) for a surface

"Good absorbers are good emitters."

Net Rate of heat loss through radiation :

4
Rate of emission ¿ eAσ T b

4
Rate of absorbtion ¿ eA σ T s

Net rate of heat loss ¿ eA σ ( T b −T s )

4 4

dθ dT b
=eA σ ( T b−T s ) =−ms
4 4
dt dt

Rate or cooling means rate of loss of temperature :

| |
dT b eA σ ( T b−T s )
4 4
Rate of cooling ¿ =
dt ms

If in time dt the net heat energy loss for ideal black body is dQ and because of this its
temperature falls by d θ

dQ
=eσA ( T −T 0 )
4 4
Rate of loss of heat R H =
dt

It is also equal to emitted power or radiation emitted per second

Rate of fall in temperature (Rate of cooling) R F=

dθ σ A 4
=
dt msJ
( [
T −T 40 ) ∵
dQ
dt
=msJ
dθ
dt ]
Example.

Determine the amount of energy radiated per second from the filament of an
incandescent lamp operating at a temperature of 2000 Kelvin. The lamp's surface area is
5.0 x 10^(-5) square meters, and its relative emissivity is 0.85. Use the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, σ, which is 5.7 x 10^(-8) watts per square meter per Kelvin to solve
the problem.
4
Solution : We know, E=Ae r σ T

Here A=5.0× 10−5 m 2 , σ=5.7 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4 , e=0.85 , T =2000 K

¿
Example.

Under the assumption of Newton's law of cooling, a body's temperature decreases from
60 degrees Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius over a span of 7 minutes. Given that the
surroundings are at 10 degrees Celsius, determine the body's temperature after the next
7 minutes.

Solution : According to Newton's law of cooling

θ2−θ1
t
θ +θ
(
=K 1 2 −θ 2
2 )
Since the temperature decreases from 60∘ C to 40 ∘ C in 7 minutes

60−40
7
=K (
60+ 40
2
20
)
−10 ⇒ =K (50−10)⇒ K=
7
1
14

( )
' '
40−θ 1 40+θ
If the temp. of object becomes θ' in next 7 minutes then = −10
7 14 2

1
⇒ 40−θ = ( 40+θ −20 ) ⇒ 160−4 θ =20+θ
' ' ' '
4
' ' ∘
⇒ 5θ =140 ⇒ θ =28 C

or

According to Newton's law of cooling

−d θ −1 d θ
=K ( θ−θ 0 ) or dt=
dt K ( θ−θ0 )

{ }
θ
t
−1
2
dθ 1 ( θ 1−θ0 )
∴∫ ❑ dt= ∫ ❑ ⇒ t= log e ⁡
0 K θ ( θ−θ0 )
1
K ( θ 2−θ0 )

As per the question 7=

1
K {
log e ⁡
60−10
40−10 } 1
also 7= log e ⁡
K
40−10
θ−10 { }
from above equations we have log e ⁡ ( 5030 )=log ⁡( θ−10
e
30
)
5 30 140 ∘
∴ = ⇒ 5 θ−50=90 ⇒ θ= =28 C
3 θ−10 5

m A 3 sA 1
Example, Two bodies A or B have same rate of cooling = , = . Find ratio of
mB 1 s B 2
heat loss of A∧ B ?

Solution : Same rate of cooling

 ( 2 ( C b−l 4s )
mA s A ) (
A
=
eA σ ( T 4b−T 4s )
mB s B )
B

( Heatloss
3 ×1 ) ( 1× 2 )
=
Heat loss
A B
¿

NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING

Rate of loss of heat ( dQdt ) is directly proportional to excess of temperature of the body
over that of

surrounding. [(when ( θ−θ0 ) ≯ 35 C

∘
] ddtQ ∝ ( θ−θ ) ⇒ dQ
dt
=ms
0
dθ
dt

θ=¿ temperature of body [ in ∘ C ] ,θ 0=¿ temperature of surrounding, θ−θ0=¿ excess of

temperature ( θ> θ0 )

If the temperature of body decrease d θ in time dt then rate of fall of temperature

−d θ
≁ ( θ−θ0 )
dt

Where negative sign indictates that the rate of cooling is decreasing with time.

Excess of temperature :
If the temperature of body decreases from θ1 to θ2 and temperature of surroundings is θ0

then average excess of temperature ¿

[ θ1 +θ2
2
−θ0 ⇒
t][
θ1 −θ2
=−K
θ1 +θ2
2
−θ0] [ ]
Example.

A heater, connected to a 200-watt power supply, is placed in surroundings at 20 degrees

Celsius. The heater reaches a steady temperature of 40 degrees Celsius.

(a) Determine the rate of heat loss to the surroundings.

(b) Calculate the rate of heat absorption by the heater when it is at 35 degrees Celsius.

(c) If the rate of temperature increase was 1 degree Celsius per second when the heater
was at 35 degrees Celsius, find the heat capacity of the heater.

(d) With a heat capacity of 50 joules per second, what is the rate of temperature
increase of the heater when its temperature is 38 degrees Celsius?
(e) Once the heater is turned off after reaching steady state, find the rate of heat loss
and the rate of cooling immediately after switching off the heater.

(f) Illustrate the graph showing the temperature change of the heater after it is switched
off.

(g)

Find the time taken to cool from 40 ∘ C to 25∘ C ?

(h) Find time taken by heator to cool from 39.5∘ C to 38.5∘ C ?

dθ
Solution : (a) =K ( T H −T S )
dt

200=K (40−20)

K=10

(b) ( ddtθ )
T 11 =35 ∘
=10 ( 35∘−20∘ ) ⇒ 150∘

∴ Rate of absorbtion ¿ 200−150=50 watt

dθ
(c) =150
dt
∴ Rate of absorbtion ¿ 50 watt

(50)=ms ( dTdt )
ms=C=50 J / Kelvin

(d) Rate of emission ¿ 10(38−20)=180

Rate of absorbtion ¿ 200−180=20 watt

( dTdt )
20=ms ⁡

dT dT 2
20=50 ⇒ = =0.4 %
dt dt 5

dθ
(e) =10(40−20)=20 watt (Rate of heat loss)
dt

dθ
dT dt 200
= ⇒ ⇒ 4∘ C / sec.
dt ms 50

dθ dT
(f) =K ( T−T s ) =ms
dt dt
T T
dT −K −K
∫❑ ∫ ❑ dt ⇒
T
=
T −T s ms 40
[ l n ( T −T s ) ]T = ms
0
t
40
−Kt
K T −T s
ln ⁡( T 0 −T s )− ⇒ =e ms
ms T 0 −T s
−Kt
ms
T =T s + ( T 0−T s ) e

−Kt
(g) T =T + ( T −T ) e ms
s 0 s

−10 t
50
25=20+(40−20)e
−t −t
5 1
=e 5 ⇒ e 5 =
20 4

t=5 ln ⁡4

(h) We approximate this as linear variation

 39.5+38.5 ∘
=39 C
2
dθ
=10(39−20)=190
dt
190 ×t=50(39.5−38.5)
50
t= sec .
190

Example. If a liquid takes 30 seconds in cooling from 80∘ C to 70∘ C and 70 seconds in
cooling 60∘ C to 50∘ C , then find the room temperature.

Solution :
θ1−θ2
t
=K (
θ1 +θ 2
2
−θ 0 )
In first case,
80−70
30
=K
2(
80+70 1
)
−θ0 =K ( 75−θ0 ).
3

In second case,
60−50
70
=K
2(
60+ 50 1
)
−θ0 =K ( 55−θ0 )
7

Equation (i) divide by equation (ii)

7 ( 75−θ 0 ) 160 ∘
= ⇒ 385−7 θ0=225−3 θ0 ⇒ θ0 = =40 C
3 ( 55−θ 0 ) 4

Example.

A calorimeter initially holds 40 grams of water at 50 degrees Celsius, which then cools to
45 degrees Celsius in 10 minutes. In a separate experiment, the same calorimeter
contains 100 grams of water at 50 degrees Celsius, and it takes 20 minutes for the
temperature to drop to 45 degrees Celsius. Determine the water equivalent of the
calorimeter.

m1 s1 +W m2 s2 +W
Solution: = where W is the water equivalent
t1 t2

40 ×1+W 100 × 1+W

⇒ = ⇒ 80+ 2 W =100+ W ⇒ W =20 g
10 20
 2 4
Power e 4 π R s σ T s
Power per unit area ¿ = 2
Area 4πd
4
' e As σ T s '
Power to A ¿ ring ¿= 2
×A
4πd

4
eA c σ T s 2
¿ ×⏟
π R earth
Power of earth 4πd
2
Area of
projection

SOLAR CONSTANT 'S'

The Sun emits radiant energy continuously in space of which an in significant part
reaches the Earth. The solar radiant energy received per unit area per unit time by a
black surface held at right angles to the Sun's rays and placed at the mean distance of
the Earth (in the absence of atmosphere) is called solar constant.

The solar constant S is taken to be 1340 watts ¿ m 2 or 1.937 Cal /cm2−¿ minute

Temperature of the Sun :

Let R be the radius of the Sun and 'd' be the radius of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Let
E be the energy emitted by the Sun per second per unit area. The total energy emitted
by the Sun in one second ¿ E ⋅ A=E ×4 π R2 . (This energy is aling on a sphere of radius
equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun i.e., on a sphere of surface area
2
4πd )
2 2
4 π R × E ER
So, The energy falling per unit area of Earth ¿ 2
= 2
4πd d
8 11 −8 −2 −4
R=7∗10 m, d=1.5 ×10 m, s=5.7 ×10 W m K

Solar constant
2
ER
S= 2
d

By Stefan’s Law

E=σ T 4

[ ] [ ]
1 1
11 2
σ T 4 R2 S × d2 4 1340 × ( 1.5× 10 ) 4
S= 2
⇒T = 2
= =5732 K
8 2
d σ× R 5.7 ×10 × ( 7 ×10 )
−8

Spectral Emissive power (I) or spectral radiancy:

Transmissive power per unit wavelength near a given wavelength (λ)

dt
I=
dλ
Id λ=dE Id λ=¿ emissive power of radiation having wavelength from λ to λ+ d λ
λ2

∫ ❑ Id ⁡λ= emissive power of radiation having wavelength from λ1 to λ2

λ1
∞

∫ ❑ Id ⁡λ= total emissive power

0

Total area of graph ¿ Total emissive power ¿ eσ T 4 (here e=¿ black body)

Practically given by : Lumers and Pringshem Mathematically given by : Plank

spectral energy distribution curve (E−i)
 1
(i) λ m ≈
T

(ii)
5
Ei ∝T
m

[ ]
4
σ A1 T 4
(iii) Area ∫ Ei d λ=E=σ T
0 = 1
A2 T2

 Spectral energy distribution curves are continuous. At any temperature in

between possible wavelength (0−∞) radiation emitted but for different
wavelength quantity of radiations are different.
 As the wave length increases, the amount of radiation emitted first increase,
becomes maximum and then decreases.
At a particular temperature the area enclosed between the spectral energy curve shows
x 4
the spectral emissive power of the body. Area ¿ ∫ 0 E i dλ=E=σ T

WEIN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW

The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of radiation decrease with
increasing temperature λm ∝ [ 1
T]. This is known as Wein's displacement law.

λ m T =b where b Wein's constant ¿ 2.89 ×10−3 mK .⇒ λm T 1=λ m T 2= λm T 3=b

1 2 3

Dimensions of b :=M 0 L1 T '' θ1

c
Relation between frequency and temperature v m= T
b
Example.

The furnace temperature is 2000 degrees Celsius, and the spectrum shows maximum
intensity at around 4000 angstroms. If the maximum intensity shifts to 2000 angstroms,
determine the temperature of the furnace in degrees Celsius.

Solution : by using λ m T =b , 4000(2000+273)=2000( T )⇒T =4546 K

The temperature of furnace ¿ 4546−273=4273 ∘ C

Example. Body A has λ m =500 Å & body B has λ m =1000 Å .

A B

TA
Find : (a)
TB
Emissive power of A
(b)
Emissive power of B

T A λm 1000 Å 2
Solution : (a) = =
B
=
T B λm
A
500 Å 1

()
4
Emissive power of A σ T A 2 16
(b) = 4
= =
Emissive power of B σ T B 1 1