20 March 2025

Note: In this ppt, figures/text are adopted from various sources;

this is only for class explanation purpose. Recommended to
Lecture 29-32 refer relevant textbooks for full explanation

Highway Materials and Testing –

Granular Materials (Subgrade, Aggregate)

Course Instructor
Indian Institute of
Department of
Technology (BHU)
Civil Engineering
Varanasi
Dr. Agnivesh Pani

©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

Subgrade Properties Relevant to

Highway Construction

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©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

CBR Test
• Stands for California Bearing Ratio
• Simple empirical method, comparing resistance to
penetration of the test specimen to that of a “standard”
sample of well-graded crushed stone material using a
standard-sized piston.
• In 1928 and 1929, engineers at the California Division of
Highways (now Caltrans) developed the CBR test to ensure
pavements could be economically constructed and still carry
the anticipated axle loads.
• Penetration is measured by applying the bearing load on the
sample using a standard plunger of diameter 50 mm at the
rate of 1.25 mm/min.
• The CBR is expressed as a percentage of the actual load
causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the
standard loads on crushed stone.
• The load values on standard crushed stones are 1,370 kgf
(13.44 kN) and 2,055 kgf (20.15 kN) at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm 𝒑
penetrations respectively. 𝑪𝑩𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒑𝒔
𝐩𝐬 is the standard load
CE251 Transportation Engineering-I

©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

Procedure

IS 2720: Part 16

Spacer disk +
Light compaction vs filter paper
Heavy compaction

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=ChA8ffECh44&ab_channel=Avishe
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Procedure

IS 2720: Part 16

Surcharge weight of
2.5 kg
Penetration
Proving ring reading
(mm)
0 0
0.5 17
1 25
1.5 33
2 36
2.5 40
3 45
4 48
5 52
7.5 59
10 64
12.5 72 Additional annular
weight of 2.5 kg
Seating load of 4 kg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=ChA8ffECh44&ab_channel=Avishe
CE251 Transportation Engineering-I
kBhattacharjee

©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

Procedure

As per MoRTH,
IS 2720: Part 16
• Embankment should have
a minimum CBR of 5%
• GSB should have a
minimum CBR of 30%

Type of Pavement Layer CBR, Min

Granular Subbase Course 30

Embankment and Subgrade >5

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=ChA8ffECh44&ab_channel=Avishe
kBhattacharjee

Soaked CBR test in areas

with high rainfall – 4 days
of soaking practiced

CE251 Transportation Engineering-I

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.civil-
engineering-calculators.com%2FSoil-Test%2FCalifornia-Bearing-Ratio-Test-
Calculator&psig=AOvVaw0RY7wheQG5nNmDS5J06n0H&ust=164265482569
8000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjhxqFwoTCJjOlaCEvfUCFQAAAA
AdAAAAABAT

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©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

• ASTM D6951-18

• Used for estimating the in-situ CBR of subgrade soil

• Total penetration for a given number of blows is measured and

reported as mm/blow which can be used to describe stiffness,
estimate CBR from correlations, or other material characteristics

• DCP cannot be used in highly stabilized or cemented materials

or for granular materials containing a large percentage of
aggregates greater than 50 mm

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©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

From ASTM
D6951
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𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 292/𝐷𝐶𝑃 .

𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 1/(0.017019 × 𝐷𝐶𝑃)

CL soils with CBR<10

𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 1/(0.002871 × 𝐷𝐶𝑃)

CH soils

𝐸 = 357.87 × 𝐷𝐶𝑃 .

IRC 115-2014

From ASTM D6951

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©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

Expansive Soils – Special Case of Subgrade in Field and Solutions

• What are expansive soils?
• Soils that exhibit volumetric changes due to changes in their moisture content
• Why do some soils swell/shrink?
• Due to the presence of some specific minerals (such as montmorillonite that belongs to smectite
group). The structure and chemistry of such groups leads to formation of diffused double layer
(DDL) which has the capacity to hold water and thus swell. Once water evaporates/moves out,
extensive shrinkage may occur

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Questions and Answers
• What are the issues with expansive soil?
• Volumetric changes in expansive soils will reduce the stability of the
structure and may damage the structure laid over it
• How moisture changes in field after construction?
• Mostly due to rainfall, lateral seepage through drains/culverts, some
leakages in underground pipe systems, evaporation, etc.
• How to identify expansive soils?
• Free swelling index (>50 : Very High, 35-50 : High, 20-35 : Medium,
<20 : Low)
• PI (>60; 40-60; 20-40; <20)
• Particle size distribution (proportion <0.002 mm; >95, 60-95, 30-60,
<30)
• XRD, SEM, etc.

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©SCULPT{Lab}, IIT (BHU) Varanasi (https://www.sculptlab.in/) Dr. Agnivesh Pani

Questions and Answers
• Which are the typical locations in India where you encounter such expansive
soils?
• MP, AP, Maharashtra, Gujrat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Jharkhand
• What are the common techniques to solve the engineering issues in expansive
soils?
• Removal and replacement: Costly
• Remoulding and compaction: Compact at higher moisture content (wet
side of optimum) and lower density
• Pre-wetting or ponding: Good for soils having higher hydraulic
conductivity; time-consuming; surfactants are used to expedite the
process
• Wetting-drying: Cycles repeated until equilibrium condition is reached and
plastic deformation ceases
• Reinforcement using geosynthetics (geogrid, geotextile, geo-composite,
geonet and geocell) or natural/synthetic fibres: Facilitates 3D interlocking
and improves mechanical response

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Questions and Answers

• What are the common techniques to solve the engineering issues in expansive soils?
• Chemical stabilization:
• Lime: Cation exchange, flocculation and agglomeration, pozzolanic reaction, and carbonate
cementation
• Cement: Hydration, cation exchange, flocculation, and pozzolanic reaction
• Flyash: Class C FA has higher lime content (>20%) than class F (<10%)
• Non traditional agents: industrial by-product materials (such as cement kiln dust, lime kiln dust,
ground granulated blast furnace slag, pulverised coal bottom ash, steel slag, mine tailings, and
others), other waste products with calcium oxide content (such as waste paper sludge ash),
salts, sulphonated oils, ionic compounds, polymers, enzymes, etc.

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Part 1 - Aggregates

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Aggregate Requirement – BIG QUESTION

• What you see on a road is a blacktop surface, the real
question is about materials that are hidden inside the surface,
based on a design based on current and forecasted traffic.

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Conventional Pavement Design – IRC-37

5% CBR ---> 77 cm of pavement
layers

What about the aggregate

requirement?

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Consumption of Aggregate Quantity

For a typical 60 km
stretch, aggregate
consumption is about
20-30 lakh tonnes of
good aggregate

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Materials – Above Soil?

• Road development programmes in India require 150 million
cu.m of aggregate per annum – Environment Problem

• “Aggregate” is a collective term for the mineral materials such as

sand, gravel and crushed stone that are used with a binding medium
(such as water, bitumen, portland cement, lime, etc.) to form compound
materials (such as asphalt concrete and portland cement concrete)

• NHDP project of 60 km road improvement requires 20 lakh tonne

of material. For a lead of 200 km (which is common in North
India), it will require 180,00,000 litre of diesel for transportation
alone – Is it Sustainable?
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Ultimately, Aggregate Consumption is Unavoidable

• Why do we add aggregates? To fill up the bulk – cost
reduction – provide strength – and avoid heat of hydration
• Why do we add cement or bitumen? Bonding – Workability
– Strength of final set mix
• Challenges – Environmental concerns, shortage, and need to
look for alternative resources
• Learning Outcomes
• Aggregate properties
• Various tests for Aggregate Properties
• Interaction between aggregates and cement paste/bitument

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Aggregates
• IS383 – Standard of coarse and fine aggregate (Even alternate
materials are given there)
• Up to 25% of fine aggregate is allowed to be recycled
concrete
• This is the biggest challenge in the future – available now, but
we need to phase out slowly to alternate materials

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Aggregate Production
• Aggregates are obtained from local
supplies of natural rock
• Strength, hardness, and soundness
are parent rock properties
• Production process is important to
ensure good quality (eliminating
weak layers) and desired shape
• Aggregate should be angular

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Aggregate Production
• Rounded aggregates (seashore
gravel) have minimum water
requirement – more workability
• Limitation – cannot take tension
• Angular aggregates have
higher SSA – better interlocking
• Cubical aggregates – particles
having equal l, b, and t.
• Flaky + elongated ≤ 15% Least dimension Length > 9/15th of
< 3/5th of mean mean dimension
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Aggregate Production Rock blasting –

• All quarries have a layer of overburden

material (Soil and decomposed rock)
that needs to be removed
• Before blasting the rock, overburden
needs to be removed by scrapers,
dozers, excavators
• Blasting should produce suitable size
chunks which can be fed into primary
crusher
• Crushing is compulsory because size
reduction can be done in stages
Removal of overburden in a stone quarry
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Aggregate Production
- Aggregate Feeder
- Grizzley Screen (removing weak
materials; screening process) –
sometimes Grizzley screened
material “Crusher Run Material” is
saved for lower-grade construction
- Jaw crusher is primary crusher
- Cone crusher is secondary crusher
for further reducing size and making
cubical/rounded aggregates
- Screening deck which continuously
vibrates and have a set of sieves (25
mm and 19 mm; 19 mm to 10 mm;
10 mm to 4 mm; less than 4 mm)
Removal of overburden in a stone quarry
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Aggregate Production
• Typically, a jaw crusher is used as
a primary crusher (200 mm to 25 mm)
• Standard cone crusher is
secondary crusher (10 mm to desired)
Jaw Crusher

Simple Quarry Set up

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Aggregate Production
• Four different mechanisms of stone crushers:
1. Impact-based: Sharp and instantaneous
impingement of a rock piece against another
rock piece – cubical aggregates
2. Attrition-based: Grinding mechanism
between two surfaces – e.g., cone crusher Impact Crusher
3. Shear Crushing – Trimming and cleaving Cone Crusher
action – e.g., single roll crusher
4. Compression-based: Compressive forces
applied to rock trapped between surfaces
(e.g., jaw crushers)

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Aggregate Production
• During crushing operation,
various screen decks are used to
separate aggregate into different
sizes such as 40 mm, 20 mm, 10
mm, 5 mm, and so forth
• Some decks have the capability to
wash the aggregate
• Quality control is required during
crushing and screening by
frequent sampling

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Aggregate Production – Sizing and Screening Operations

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Aggregate Properties Related to

Pavement Performance
Chemical Properties and Physical Properties

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Desirable Properties of Aggregates

1. Clean and free of clay and organic matter
2. Be angular and not excessively flaky
3. Be strong enough to resist crushing during mixing, laying,
compaction, consolidation, and in service
4. Be resistant to abrasion and polishing when exposed to traffic
5. Be non-absorptive
6. Have good affinity to bitumen in case of bituminous
pavements

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Chemical Properties
• Important for bituminous and cement concrete mixes
• Surface chemistry determines how well bitumen adheres to the
aggregate
• Poor adhesion results in stripping causing premature failure of
pavements (***)
• In PCC pavements, reactive silica, if present in aggregates,
reacts expansively with alkalis in the cement paste. Expansion
leads to cracking, pop-outs and spalling

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Stripping of Aggregates
• One of the main failure modes in bituminous pavements
• Resulting from loss of adhesion between bitumen and aggregates
• Some aggregates have an affinity for water over bitumen –
Hydrophilic
• Some others have less affinity for water – Hydrophobic
• Hydrophobic – Acidic in nature (Siliceous – Sand stone,
Quartzite) – (-vely charged in the presence of water)
• Hydrophobic – Basic in nature (Calcareous – Lime stone,
Dolomite, +vely charged)
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Physical Properties of Aggregates

1. Gradation and Size
2. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture
3. Cleanliness and Deletererious Materials
4. Porosity or Absorption
5. Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

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1. Gradation and Size

• Aggregates – CA (>2.36 mm), FA (<2.36 mm and >0.075 mm),
and Mineral Filler (<0.3 mm or <0.075 mm)

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1. Gradation and Size

• Gradation – Indicates distribution of aggregate particles of
varying sizes in a given volume of mixture
• Ideally, it would appear reasonable to have densest packing
• However, it is necessary to have adequate voids (VMA)
• So that it can accommodate sufficient amount of bitumen for mix
durability
• It also needs to have sufficient air voids so as to avoid bleeding and or
rutting of pavements (Concept of VMA will be studied in next module)
• Graphically, gradation is represented by sieve size distribution
curves
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1. Gradation and Size

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1. Gradation and Size

• What is the ideal gradation?
• Aggregates of different sizes are normally used in combination
• Densest packing?
• Single sized particle packing – Many studies and solutions of
single sized spheres (e.g., densest packing is 74% with 26% voids)
– but not practical reality we have in road construction
• Variable sized particle packing
• Theory of maximum density curve (Fuller, 1907)
• Particle interfering theory (Weymouth, 1933)
• Fractal Theory (Mandebrot and Wheeler 1983)

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1. Gradation and Size

• Theory of Maximum Density Curve
• Fuller and Thompson (0.5 Power Law)

(i.e., Maximum sieve size)

If you can take aggregates as per Fuller and Thompson equation,

you will get the densest gradation

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1. Gradation and Size

• What is maximum aggregate size?
• Maximum size – the smallest size of the sieve through which
100% of aggregate particles pass
• Nominal Maximum Size – Largest sieve that retains some of the
aggregate particles but not more than 10% by weight
• (or) One sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than
10% material

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1. Gradation and Size

Sieve Size (mm) % of Aggregate Passing the Sieve • Maximum Aggregate Size –
19 100 19 mm
• Nominal Maximum Aggregate
13.2 92 Size – 13.2 mm
9.5 77
4.75 62 19 mm
2.36 50
1.18 41
0.60 32
0.30 23
0.15 16
0.075 mm
0.075 7
Pan
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1. Gradation and Size

• 0.45 Power Gradation - FHWA lab
experiments showed an optimal value
of 0.45 – which leads to the gradation
chart ---------

Plot
(i.e., Maximum sieve size)

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1. Gradation and Size

Sieve Size % of Aggregate Passing the Sieve
(mm)
Given 0.5 0.45
13.2 100 100 100
9.5 95 84.8 86.2
4.75 43 60 63.1
2.36 31.5 42.3 46.1
1.18 22.5 29.9 33.7
0.30 14 15.1 18.2
0.075 5.5 7.5 9.8

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Dense or Well Graded

1. Gradation and Size Closely packed, lesser voids, more
particle contacts
Gap Gradation
Contains only a small percentage
of aggregate particles in the mid-
size range, more voids, but more
coarse stone-to-stone contact
Open Gradation
Contains only a small percentage
of aggregate particles in the small
ranges (near vertical in mid range
and flat near small range)
Uniform Gradation
Most of the particles in a narrow range
– High voids, difficult to compact
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Note that normalized sieve size

1. Gradation and Size (sieve size raised to 0.45) is

plotted on X-axis

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Note that normalized sieve size

1. Gradation and Size (sieve size raised to 0.45) is

plotted on X-axis

Note that 3.76

represents 19
mm

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1. Gradation and Size

• Deviation from MDL is required to control performance of the mix
• Highway agencies make their own gradation limits based on
experience

Is it coarse
or fine
gradation?

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1. Gradation and Size

• Deviation from MDL is required to control performance of the mix
• Highway agencies make their own gradation limits based on
experience

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1. Gradation and Size

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Aggregate Blending – Why do you need it?

• Many times, various stockpiles should be mixed (blended) to achieve
the desired gradation
• Individual stockpiles have their own sieve size distribution
• In what proportion should we mix A, B, and C in such a way that the
resulting gradation satisfies the desired criteria?
• There can be many options!

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Blending – Why do you need it?

• To obtain desirable gradation (Specified by MoRTH for India)
• Single natural or quarried aggregate is not suitable
(environmental sustainability)
• Economical to mix natural and processed aggregates

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Blending – Where do you need it?

• For the design of sub-base or granular base of a flexible
pavement
• Granular sub-base, WMM, WBM
• For the design of mix for bituminous base course
• DBM, BM
• For the design of mix for bituminous wearing course
• Bituminous concrete (BC) or SDBC

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Blending – Essential Problem Statement

100+N-1
N-1Engineering - I
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Blending – Various Methods to solve aggregate

proportioning
1. Trial and Error Method
2. Analytical Method
3. Graphical Method or Rothfutch’s Method

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Blending – 1. Trial and Error Method

• Select critical sieves in the blend, like 12.5 mm, 2.36 mm, and
0.075 mm
• Find initial proportion to meet the critical sieves
• Check the calculated gradation with specified gradation
• Make adjustments for the sizes going beyond the limit

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Blending – 1. Trial and Error Method

Sieve
A B C Range Mid-Point
Size
19.0 100 100 100 100 100 Range of gradation will
13.2 63 100 100 70 – 85 78 depend upon the layer
4.75 19 100 100 40 – 55 48
thickness and the type of mix.
It has to be as per MORTH
2.36 8 93 100 30 – 42 36 specifications.
0.300 5 55 100 20 – 30 25
0.150 3 36 97 12 – 22 17
0.075 0 3 88 5 – 11 8

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Blending – 1. Trial and Error Method

Sieve
A B C Range Mid-Point
Size
Steps
19.0 100 100 100 100 100
• For 0.075 mm, blending will be
13.2 63 100 100 70 – 85 78
from C only; C = 8%
4.75 19 100 100 40 – 55 48
• For 2.36 mm, blending will be
2.36 8 93 100 30 – 42 36
0.300 5 55 100 20 – 30 25 from B and C – but C already

0.150 3 36 97 12 – 22 17 lost 8% -- so B = 36 – 8 = 28%

0.075 0 3 88 5 – 11 8 • Then A = 100 – 8 – 28 = 64%

Use these values

for first trial
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Blending – 1. Trial and Error Method

Sieve
A B C Range Mid-Point
Size
Steps
19.0 100 100 100 100 100
• For 0.075 mm, blending will be
13.2 63 100 100 70 – 85 78
from C only; C = 8%
4.75 19 100 100 40 – 55 48
• For 2.36 mm, blending will be
2.36 8 93 100 30 – 42 36
0.300 5 55 100 20 – 30 25 from B and C – but C already

0.150 3 36 97 12 – 22 17 lost 8% -- so B = 36 – 8 = 28%

0.075 0 3 88 5 – 11 8 • Then A = 100 – 8 – 28 = 64%

Use these values

for trial-1
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Blending – 1. Trial and Error Method

Sieve A B C
Obtained Grading Range
Size (0.64) (0.28) (0.08)
19.0 100 100 100 (0.64*100)+(0.28*100)+(0.08*100) = 100 100
13.2 63 100 100 (0.64*63)+(0.28*100)+(0.08*100) = 76.3 70 – 85
4.75 19 100 100 (0.64*19)+(0.28*100)+(0.08*100) = 48.2 40 – 55
2.36 8 93 100 (0.64*8)+(0.28*93)+(0.08*100) = 39.2 30 – 42
0.300 5 55 100 (0.64*5)+(0.28*55)+(0.08*100) = 26.6 20 – 30
0.150 3 36 97 (0.64*3)+(0.28*36)+(0.08*97) = 19.76 12 – 22
0.075 0 3 88 (0.64*0)+(0.28*3)+(0.08*88) = 7.88 5 – 11

Make adjustments, if required

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Blending – 2. Analytical Method

• For each sieve size, write the constraints:
𝑃 × 𝐹 + 𝑃 × 𝐹 + 𝑃 × 𝐹 ≤ 𝑈𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑃 × 𝐹 + 𝑃 × 𝐹 + 𝑃 × 𝐹 ≥ 𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Where, P is the proportions of Aggregates A, B, and C
F is the Fraction of material passing on specific sieve sizes
• Or simply focus on mid-point grading
𝑃 × 𝐹 + 𝑃 × 𝐹 + 𝑃 × 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Frame as many equations as the number of sieves
Then solve the above set of equations keeping 𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃 = 1
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Blending – 2. Analytical Method

Sieve Mid- 𝑃 × 100 + 𝑃 × 100 + 𝑃 × 100 = 100 (1)
A B C Range
Size Point
19.0 100 100 100 100 100 𝑃 × 63 + 𝑃 × 100 + 𝑃 × 100 = 78 (2)
13.2 63 100 100 70 – 85 78
𝑃 × 19 + 𝑃 × 100 + 𝑃 × 100 = 48 (3)
4.75 19 100 100 40 – 55 49
2.36 8 93 100 30 – 42 36
0.300 5 55 100 20 – 30 25
0.150 3 36 97 12 – 22 17
0.075 0 3 88 5 – 11 8 𝑃 × 0 + 𝑃 × 3 + 𝑃 × 88 = 8 (7)

This is nothing but a System of Linear Equations (Linear Algebra)

How can we solve it? – Matrix approach, Matlab, Excel Solver

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Blending – 2. Analytical Method

Excel Solver Approach

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Blending – 2. Analytical Method

Excel Solver Approach

Objective: Minimize
Squared Difference
Variable Cells:
Proportion/Blend of
Aggregates
Constraint:
Sum of Proportion = 1

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Blending – 2. Analytical Method

Excel Solver Results

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Blending – 3. Rothfutch Method (Graphical)

• This method is also called Balance Area method Sieve Mid-
Size Point
19.0 100
13.2 78
4.75 49
2.36 36
0.300 25
0.150 17
0.075 8

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Blending – 3. Rothfutch Method (Graphical)

Sieve Size Scale
MDL
Size ^0.45
100 1 cm = 10% (Y-Axis)
19 3.762 1
90 13.2 3.193 0.849
1 cm = 0.4 (X-Axis)
80 4.75 2.016 0.536
Sieve Desired
% Passing

70 2.36 1.472 0.391

0.3 0.582 0.155 Size Proportion
60
50
0.15 0.426 0.113 19.0 100
0.075 0.31 0.083
40 13.2 78
30 4.75 49
20
2.36 36
10
0.300 25
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 0.150 17
Sieve Size (mm) Raised 19 mm sieve plots 0.075 8
to 0.45 Power at 19^0.45 = 3.8
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Blending – 3. Rothfutch Method (Graphical)

Rothfutch Method (Graphical) 100
100.0 100.0

90.0 78
Sieve Size^
MDL A B C
80.0 84.9 Size 0.45
19 3.76 100.0 100 100 100
70.0
13.2 3.19 84.9 63 100 100
60.0 49
4.75 2.02 53.6 19 100 100
2.36 1.47 39.1 8 93 100
50.0 53.6
36
0.3 0.58 15.5 5 55 100
40.0 0.15 0.43 11.3 3 36 97
39.1
0.075 0.31 8.3 0 3 88
30.0 25

20.0 17
15.5
8 11.3
10.0
8.3

0.0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
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Blending – 3. Rothfutch Method (Graphical)

Rothfutch Method (Graphical) 100
100.0 100.0

78
90.0

80.0 84.9 Sieve Size^

MDL A B C
70.0 Size 0.45
19 3.76 100.0 100 100 100
60.0 49
13.2 3.19 84.9 63 100 100
50.0 53.6 4.75 2.02 53.6 19 100 100
36
2.36 1.47 39.1 8 93 100
40.0
0.3 0.58 15.5 5 55 100
39.1
30.0 25 0.15 0.43 11.3 3 36 97
20.0 17 0.075 0.31 8.3 0 3 88
15.5
8 11.3
10.0
8.3

0.0 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
Sieve size raised to 0.45

MDL Desired A B CE251

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Blending – 3. Rothfutch Method (Graphical)

Rothfutch Method (Graphical) 100
100.0 100.0
C 78
Step 1 –
90.0
Draw Balance Lines
80.0 84.9
B Step 2 –
70.0
A = 66% Join Balance Lines
60.0 49

50.0
36
53.6 Step 3 –
40.0
Points of Intersection
39.1
between Desired Line
30.0 25 and balance line
17
A B = 28% noted
20.0
15.5
8 11.3
10.0
8.3 Step 4 –
0.0 0 C = 6% Calculate Proportion
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
of A, B, and C
Sieve size raised to 0.45

MDL Desired A B CE251

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Blending – Example IRC-SP 77:2018 (Gravel Roads)

Sieve Size^0.
MDL A B C Desired
Size 45
40 5.26 100.0 100 100 100 100
20 3.85 73.2 75 100 100 90
10 2.82 53.6 20 100 100 58
4.75 2.02 38.3 8 100 100 50
2.36 1.47 28.0 6 80 100 40
0.6 0.79 15.1 2 40 100 23
0.075 0.31 5.9 0 2 100 5
0 0.00 0 0 0 0

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Blending – Example IRC-SP 77:2018 (Gravel Roads)

Rothfutch Method (Graphical) 100
90
100.0 100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0 58
73.2
60.0 50

50.0 53.6
40
40.0

30.0 38.3
23 28.0
20.0
15.1
10.0 5
5.9
0.0 0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Sieve size raised to 0.45

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2. Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

• Aggregates should be tough and resistant to abrasion to
withstand breakdown during construction (handling, drying in
the drum, mixing, paving, compaction) and during service life
• Should resist abrasion and polishing due to above activities and
due to action of traffic
• Raveling is a progressive loss of aggregate particles (i.e., pop
outs) from road surface (DISTRESSES)
• Poor abrasion resistance will cause premature structural failure
and loss of skid resistance

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2. Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

• Los Angeles Abrasion Test
• For evaluation of toughness
and abrasion of aggregates
• Aggregates subjected to
impact and abrasive action
• Aggregates placed in a
rotating steel drum of 700
mm dia, 500 mm length with
a shelf plate attached to
outer wall

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2. Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

• Los Angeles Abrasion Test
• Steel charge (48 mm dia spheres) used
• Rotates at 30 to 33 rpm
• Steel charge, total number of revolutions vary
• After completion of test, material passing 1.7
mm sieve is expressed percentage of total
aggregate – LA Abrasion Value
• Hard Igneous Stone 10%, Soft Lime Stone 60%

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3. Aggregate Impact Resistance – i.e., Toughness

• Resistance to crushing under
sudden impact load
• Aggregates of 12.5 – 10 mm
size used
• 102 mm dia mould 50 mm
deep
• Hammer 13.5 to 14 kg,
Height of Fall 380 mm, 15
blows

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3. Aggregate Impact Resistance – i.e., Toughness

• Material passing 2.36 mm
sieve is expressed as
percentage of the total
aggregate – Aggregate
Impact Value (AIV)
• Lower AIV indicates tougher,
more wear resistant aggregate
Diagnostic Sieve: 2.36 mm
• MoRTH recommend a maximum
AIV of 24% for BC and 27% for
other mixes

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4. Aggregate Crushing Strength

• Aggregate Crushing Test
• Typically used for aggregates used in CC
• Resistance to crushing under severe stress
• Aggregates of 12.5 – 10 mm size used
• 115 mm dia mould 180 mm deep
• Compression load of 40 tonnes in 10 minutes
• Material passing 2.36 mm sieve expressed as
percentage of total aggregate is the aggregate
crushing value
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4. Aggregate Crushing Strength

40 Tonnes of Load

Close the release valve before loading Then open the

release valve

Remove the crushed material

Diagnostic Sieve: 2.36 mm
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5. Durability and Soundness

• Resistance to breakdown from weathering (wetting/drying,
freezing/thawing)
• It is normally a problem in CC pavements not BC pavements –
why?? (hint: aggregate pores and moisture)
• Aggregates break apart due to weathering action, causing
premature distress
• In Bituminous mixes, aggregates are heated. Hence no moisture.
Freezing and Thawing not a problem
• PCC and granular bases and sub-base aggregates contain
moisture
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5. Durability and Soundness

• Soundness Test
• Repeatedly submerging an
aggregate sample in a
saturated solution of sodium
or Magnesium sulfate
• This process causes salt
crystals to form in the
aggregate pores, simulating
ice crystal formation

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5. Durability and Soundness

IS-2386 (Part-5)-Methods Of Test For Aggregates For
• Soundness Test Concrete (Part-5-Soundness)

• Porous aggregates are of

concern
• Number of cycles usually 5
• Loss in weight for each
fraction of aggregate is
observed and a weighted
average % loss is computed
for entire sample

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7. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture

• Important parameter since
it determines the
percentage of SSA that will
be coated with binder
• Important for compaction,
deformation resistance,
workability, binder
requirement of mixes

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7. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture

• Angular and rough-textured particles are preferred for BC pavement
• Rounded aggregates are preferred in CC pavement – since
aggregates mostly occupy space and workability is the main concern
• Flat and elongated particles break down during production and
construction – affecting durability

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7. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture

1. Flakiness and Elongation Indices
2. Particle Index How to Quantify?

3. % Fractured Faces

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7. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture

1. Flakiness Index: (Flaky: t < 0.6*mean dimension)
• IS test sieves of size 63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 31.5 mm, 25 mm,
20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm
• Sieve Analysis

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7. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture

1. Elongation Index: (Flaky: l > 9/5*mean dimension)
• Separate the aggregates in each size range W1, W2, … Wn
• Weights of portion of aggregate retained on elongated slots –
E1, E2, …. En

∑
• EI = ∗ 100
• FI+EI should be less than 15% and
• never > 25% (NOTE: Elongation test determined for non-flaky
aggregates)

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7. Particle Shape, Angularity, Surface Texture

% Fractured Faces (Coarse
Aggregate Angularity
• For aggregates retained on 4.75
mm
• No of particles with at least one
fractured face (which has an area
that is > 25% of projected area)
• Usually satisfied this criteria

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8. Porosity or Absorption
• MoRTH specifies maximum water absorption of 2%
• However, there are some limestones which are highly
absorptive but are sound and tough (e.g., limestones in USA
with 7% absorption)
• Generally, high water absorption is indicative of bitumen
absorption (Rule of thumb – Bitumen absorption is 60% of WA)
• How to Measure Water Absorption? IS: 2386 (Part 3)
• It will be discussed in detail under “Specific Gravity”

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9. Cleanliness and Deletererious Materials

• “Cleanliness” is concerned with coatings that are <0.075 mm
• Adhesion brought by binder can be inhibited by dust and clay
coatings, which results in stripping of asphalt mixture
• “Deleterious materials” include individual aggregate particles
that are weak, reactive, or unsound
• Clay lumps, friable particles, shale, coal, glassy particles, free
mica, and vegetation are deleterious materials detrimental to AM

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10. Expansive Characteristics

• Some aggregates, e.g., steel slag, tend to expand up on
reaction with water
• ASTM D 4792 – “Potential expansion of aggregates from
Hydration Reactions”

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