4.

NUMERICAL METHODS – II

4.1 Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

Preliminaries :

A problem of great importance in science and engineering is that of

determining the roots/zeros of an equation of the form f(x) = 0.

A polynomial equation of the form

a0 xn + a1 xn-1 + a2 xn-2 + … +an-1 x + an = 0

is an algebraic equation. An equation which contains exponential functions,

trigonometric functions or logarithmic functions is called transcendental
equation.

Example: x − x − 1 = 0, x − 3x − 2x − 1 = 0 are algebraic

equations, whereas, cos x = 3x − 1, e = 10x, sin x = x − 1 are
transcendental equations.

Initial approximation for an iterative procedure :

We use the following theorem of calculus to determine an initial

approximation. It is also called intermediate value theorem.

Theorem : If f(x) is continuous on some interval [a, b] and f(a) f(b) < 0, then
the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one real root or an odd number of real roots in
the interval (a, b).

BISECTION METHOD

For definiteness, let 𝑓(𝑎) be negative and 𝑓(𝑏) be positive. Then the root lies
between a and b and let its approximate value be given by
 ab
x0  . If f ( x0 )  0 , we conclude that x0 is a root of the equation f ( x)  0,
2
Otherwise the root lies between x0 and b or between x0 and a depending on
whether f ( x0 ) is positive or negative. We designate this new interval as [ a1 , b1 ]
ba
whose length is , as before this is bisected at x1 and the new interval will
2
be exactly half the length of the previous one. We repeat this process until the
latest interval (which contains the root) is the small as desired, say  . It is clear
that the interval width will reduced by a factor of one-half at each step and at
ba
the end of the nth step, the new interval will be [an , bn ] of length , we then
2n
have

 ba 
log 
ba   
  which gives on simplification n  ……….(1)
2n log e 2

 . For example, if b  a  1 and  = 0.001, then it can be seen that n ≥10 .

…….. (2)

The method is shown graphically as below

Graphical representation of the bisection method

It should be noted that this method always succeeds. If there are more roots
than one in the interval, bisection method finds one of the roots. It can be easily
programmed using the following computational steps.
1. Choose two real numbers a and b such that f(a) f(b) < 0.
 ( a  b)
2. Set xr  .
2
3. (a) If f (a ) f ( xr )  0 , the root lies in the interval (a, xr ). Then, set b = xr,
and go to step 2
(b) If f (b) f ( xr )  0 , the root lies in the interval (xr, b ). Then, set a =xr,
and go to step2
(c) If f (a ) f ( xr )  0 , it means that xr is a root of the equation f(x) = 0 and
the computation may be terminated.

In practical problems, the roots may not be exact so that the condition (c) above
is never satisfied. In such a case we need to adapt a criterion for deciding when
to terminate the computations. A convenient criterion is to compute the
percentage error  r defined by

xr1  xr
r  100% …………………………………….. (3)
xr1

where xr1 is the new value of xr . The computations can be terminated when  r
becomes less than a prescribed tolerance  p . In addition the maximum number
of iterations may also be specified in advance.

Problems:

Example 1. Find the real root of the equation f ( x )  x 3  2 x  5 by using

bisection method

Solution: Let f ( x )  x 3  2 x  5

f (2)   1 and f (3)  16

23
x0   2. 5
Hence the root lies between 2 and 3 and we take 2

Since f ( x0 )  5.6250 , we choose [2, 2.5] as the new interval. Then

2  2.5
x1   2.25
2
And f ( x1 )  1.890625 proceeding in this way, the following table is obtained

𝑛 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
1 2 3 2.5 5.6250
2 2 2.5 2.25 1.8906
 3 2 2.25 2.125 0.3457
4 2 2.125 2.0625 -0.3513
5 2.0625 2.125 2.09375 -0.0089
6 2.09375 2.125 2.10938 0.1668
7 2.09375 2.10398 2.10156 0.07856
8 2.09375 2.10156 2.09766 0.03471
9 2.09375 2.09766 2.09570 0.01286
10 2.09375 2.09570 2.09473 0.00195
11 2.09375 2.09473 2.09424 -0.0035
12 2.09424 2.09473

At n =12, it is seen that the difference between two successive iterates is 0.0005,
which is less than 0.001. Thus this result agrees with condition (2)

Example 2. Find the positive real root of the equation xe x  1 , which lies
between 0 and 1

Solution: Let f ( x)  x e x  1 since f (0)   1 and f (1)  1.718

0 1
x0   0. 5
It follows that the root lies between 0 and 1 and we take 2

Since f(0.5) is negative, it follows that the root lies between 0.5 and 1. Hence
the new root is 0.75, x1 = 0.75. using the values of x0 and x1, we calculate €

x1  x
1   100  33.33%
x1
Again we find that f (0.75) , is positive and hence the root lies between 0.5 and
0.75 ie x2  0.625
Now the new error is

0.625  0.75
1   100  20%
0.625
Proceeding in this way, the following table is constructed where only the sign
of the function value is indicated. The prescribed tolerance is 0.05%

𝑛 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) Er (%)

1 0 1 0.5 negative --
2 0.5 1 0.75 positive 33.33
3 0.5 0.75 0.625 positive 20.00
4 0.5 0.625 0.5625 negative 11.11
 5 0.5625 0.625 0.5938 positive 5.263
6 0.5625 0.5938 0.5781 positive 2.707
7 0.5625 0.5781 0.5703 positive 1.368
8 0.5625 0.5703 0.5664 negative 0.688
9 0.5664 0.5703 0.5684 positive 0.352
10 0.5664 0.5684 0.5674 positive 0.176
11 0.5664 0.5674 0.5669 negative 0.088
12 0.5669 0.5674 0.5671 negative 0.035

After 12 iterates the error  r finally satisfies the prescribed tolerance, viz.,
0.05%. Hence the required root is 0.567 and it is easily seen that this value is
correct to three decimal places.

Exercises

Using bisection method, find the approximate roots of the following

equations in the specified intervals.

(1) x3  9 x  1  0 in (2, 3) carryout 5 steps

(2) cos x 1.3x  0 in (0, 1) carryout 5 steps, ' x ' is in radians

(3) x 4  x 3  2 x 2  6 x  4  0 in (2, 3) carryout 5 steps

REGULA FALSI METHOD / METOD OF FALSE POSITION :

The method is also called linear interpolation or chord method. This is the
oldest method for finding the real root of the non linear equation f(x) = 0 and
closely resembles the bisection method. Two points a and b are suitably chosen,
such that f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs. Hence the root must lie in the
interval [a, b]. We know the equation of chord joining the two points [𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)]
and [ 𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)] is given by
y  f (a) f (b)  f ( a )

xa ba
……………………………………………………….(1)
The method consists in replacing the part of the curve between the points
[ 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)] and [ 𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)] by means of the chord joining the points, and taking
the point of intersection of the chord with the x- axis as an approximation to the
root. The point of intersection in the present case is obtained by using 𝑦 = 0
in equation (1) thus we obtain

a f (b)  b f (a )
x1 
ba …………..(2)

Which is the first approximate root of the equation f(x) = 0. If now f(x1) and f(a)
are of opposite signs, then the root lies between a and x1, and we replace b by x1
in (2) and obtain the next approximation. Otherwise we replace a by x1 and
generate the next approximations. The procedure is repeated till the root is
obtained to the desired accuracy. The following figure gives a graphical
representation of the method.

Example: Compute the real root of the equation 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 1.2 = 0 by the
method of false position. Carry out three iteration

Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 1.2

f (2)   0.6  0, f (3)  0.23  0

The real root lies in the interval ( 2, 3) and from the values of f(x) at x = 2, 3
and we expect the root in the neighbourhood of 3 and let us find ( a, b) for
applying the method such that ( b - a) is small enough.
f (2.7)   0.0353  0 , f (2.8)  0.052

The root lies between (2.7, 2.8) the successive approximations are obtained as
follows

I iteration:
a  2.7, f (2.7)   0.0353
b  2.8, f (2.8)  0.052
a f (b)  b f (a )
x1   2.7404
f (b)  f (a )

II iteration:
a  2.7404, f (2.7404)   0.00021  0
b  2.8, f (2.8)  0.052  0
a f (b )  b f ( a )
x2   2.7406
f (b )  f ( a )

III iteration:
a  2.7406, f (2.7406)   0.00004
b  2.8, f (2.8)  0.052
a f (b)  b f (a )
x3   2.7406
f (b)  f (a)

Comparing x2 and x3 we have the same value up to the places of fourth

decimal. Thus the required approximate root is 2.7406

Example: Find the real root of the equation f ( x)  cosx  1  3 x by Regula falsi
method correct to four decimal places.

Solution: let f ( x)  cosx  1  3 x

f (0)  2  0, f (1)   1.46  0

The real root lies in the interval ( 0, 1) and we expect the root in the
neighbourhood of 1 f (0.6)  0.0253  0 , f (0.7)   0.3352  0 . The root lies
between (0.6, 0.7)
I iteration:
a  0.6, f (0.6)  0.0253
b  0.7 f (0.7)   0.3352
a f (b )  b f (a )
x1   0.607
f (b )  f ( a )

II iteration:
a  0.607, f (0.607)  0.00036  0
b  0.7, f (0.7)   0.3352  0
a f (b)  b f ( a )
x2   0.607
f (b)  f (a)

Comparing x1 and x2 , we have the same value up to third decimal places

Hence the real root correct to three decimal places is 0.607

Exercises:

1. Using Regula falsi method, find the approximate roots of the equation
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0 correct to four decimal places.
2. Show that a real root of the equation tan x  tanh x  0 lies between 2 and 3
by using Regula falsi method, by taking 5 approximations.
3. Find the real root of the equation cos 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 1 correct to three decimal
place, by using Regula falsi method
4. Find the real root of the equation 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 4 = 0 in (2, 3),
carry out 5 steps, by using Regula falsi method