Biology Notes

8C

8Ca AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Doctors and paramedics attach moniters to measure things like heartbeat rate and
temperature.

Oxygen saturations(sats) is shown as a percentage.

A value of 100 per cent means that the blood is fully saturated and carrying as much
oxygen as it can.

Most people have sats of 95-100 per cent.

Organs can be damaged if it drops below 80 per cent.

DISCOVERING OXYGEN
Galen of Pergamon (129- Robert Boyle (1627-1691) John Mayow (1641-1679)
c.200)
In 1660, he did an Did further experiments
One of Galen’s ideas was experiment where he and dicovered that only a
that the heart created places a burning certain part of the air was
warmth. He imagined that candle in a jar and needed to keep a candle
it contained a slow fire sucked out all the air. burning and a small
and thought that we He repeated this with a animal alive.
breathed air to cool the mouse.
heart.
> The fire from the candle
was put out and the
mouse died.

Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) and Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) showed that this part of
the air was oxygen.

Oxygen takes up about 21 per cent of air.

Biology Notes 1
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The mitochondria in cells use oxygen to release energy stored in a type of sugar called
glucose. The release of energy occurs in series of chemical reactions called aerobic
respiration. The energy is transferred to a compound called ATP, which then releases
energy for the cell as it is needed.

Aerobic respiration uses oxygen from the air to release energy from glucose.

Aerobic respiration word equation : oxygen + glucose ——> carbon dioxide + water
(+energy)

The difference between combustion and aerobic respiration is that combustion is much
faster even though the word equation for it is the same.

8Cb GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

It is the moving of the ribs and diaphragm that causes the lungs to get bigger and smaller
(it is not the lungs themselves).

Breathing is when muscles between the ribs and the diaphragm change the size of the
lungs.

The movement of air into and out of the lungs is called ventilation.

When you breathe in, the ressure in the lungs is reduced, so atmospheric pressure pushes
air in. The muscles between and attached to the ribs contract, pulling the ribs up and out.
The muscles in the diaphragm contract, moving it downwards.

MUCUS & CILIA

Ciliated epithelial cells help to keep the
lungs clean.

Some cells in the tubes in the lung

produce a sticky liquid called mucus. It
traps dirt, dust and microorganisms. Tiny
hair on Ciliated epithelial cells called cilia,
sweep the mucus out of the lungs and
into the oesophagus to be swallowed.

The chemicals and heat in cigarette

smoke stop the cilia from working.

GAS EXCHANGE
In the lungs, some of the oxygen from the air enters the blood. At the same time, some of
the carbon dioxide in the blood plasma enters the air in the lungs.

Gas exchange occurs by diffusion, where there is an overall movement of particles from a
place where there are a lot of them to a place where there are fewer of them.

Biology Notes 2
 The lungs have a large surface area because they have about 700 million alveoli. This
means diffusion happens more quickly.

Alveoli walls are one cell thick and the blood capillaries surrounding them also have thin
walls. These thin walls mean that diffusion happens more quickly.

Thousands of tiny, branched tubes inside the lungs are kept opened with rings of a tough
tissue called cartilage.

8Cb/2 MEANS & RANGES

Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you can exhale after taking as much air into
your lungs as you can. It is a measure of total volume.

The volume of air that you normally inhale and exhale with each breath is called tidal
volume.

Mean Range

mean = total/number range = largest number - smallest

number

We can be more sure of the one with a narrower range.

The mean value is likely to be closer to the real value because a using mean helps to take
account of random errors in the measurements.

We calculate means to find a central tendency within a data set.

Exercise increases tidal volume in males and females.

8Cc GETTING OXYGEN

Oxygen sticks to molecules of haemoglobin in red blood cells, which changes the color of
the cells from a dark browny-red to a bright red color.

Blood vessels called arteries allow blood to be pumped out to the rest of the body from
the heart. Arteries divide into tiny capillaries.

In the capillaries, oxygen gradually leaves the red blood cells and dissolves in the plasma.
This leaks out through tiny holes in the capillaries and forms tissue fluid. Tissue fluid
carries oxygen to the cells. Plasma has glucose and other nutrients dissolved in it so
these are also in tissue fluid.

Biology Notes 3
 Waste product from cells dissolve in tissue fluid and return to other capillaries which
connect to veins.

Veins carry blood back towards the heart.

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
Blood contains red blood cells, liquid
plasma and white blood cells.

Red blood cells carry oxygen from and

returns carbon dioxide to the lungs.

Plasma take nutrients, hormones, and

proteins to the parts of the body that
need it.

White blood cells fight infections.

LACK OF OXYGEN
lack of oxygen causes the cells to die. This can happen because of narrowed blood
vessels, poisons and poor gas exchange in the lungs.

To avoid heat loss, the blood vessels in your skin become narrow and less blood reaches
the cells. If this causes the cells to die, it results in frostbite.

In cardiovascular disease, blood vessels become narrower due to a fatty substance

collecting inside them. More of the substance builds up in smokers.

Heart disease is a type of cardiovascular disease in which the blood supply to the heart
muscles is reduced. This can cause a heart attack.

Heart attack is when the heart muscle cells die.

Faulty gas appliances and cigarette smoke produces carbon monoxide. This gas sticks to
haemoglobin and stops red blood cells from carrying so much oxygen.

Tar in tobacco smoke and dust irritate the alveoli in the lungs. This causes the alveoli to
break apart (emphysema), reducing their surface area.

Cigarette smoke can also trigger asthma (tiny tubes in the lungs become narrow and
starts filling with mucus). Asthmas causes shortness of breath because less air can get
into and out of the lungs.

8Cd COMPARING GAS EXCHANGE

Elephant seals have an organ in their bodies that stores blood that is full of oxygen.

Exhaled air still contains a lot of oxygen.

Biology Notes 4
 Rebreather apparatus contains calcium hydroxide, which removes carbon dioxide from
exhaled air and recirculates the remaining air to breathe.

A solution of calcium hydroxide is called lime water.

Lime water is a clear and colorless liquid that turns cloudy as it absorbs carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form an acidic solution.

Hydrogen carbonate indicator is pink(red) in water but turns yellow as carbon dioxide is
added and the pH drops.

Energy released by respiration warms up a cell’s surrounding.

Gills Plants

Some animals extract oxygen from water In photosynthesis, plants need carbon
using gills. dioxide to make glucose.

In the gills, water flows over a fine Plant cells then release energy from the
network of feathery strands, where glucose using aerobic respiration.
oxygen diffuses into the blood and
Tiny holes in leaves called stomata allow
carbon dioxide diffuses out.
gases in and out.

8Ce ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Holding your breathe, increases the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood plasma.

Oxygen is stored by haemoglobin in red blood cells.

Muscle cells can also store some oxygen.

Holding breath for a long time causes you to breathe faster to replace the oxygen used up
from your blood and muscle.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
During aerobic exercise, your body continuously gets enough oxygen to replace the oygen
being used by contracting muscle cells.

During strenuous exercise, oxygen is used up faster than it is replaced. When this happens,
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm of your muscle cells.

Anaerobic respiration is a process that breaks down food without oxygen to produce
energy.

Anaerobic respiration word equation : glucose ——> lactic acid (+some energy)

Anaerobic respiration releases less energy and does not form as much ATP as aerobic
respiration.

Anaerobic respiration makes muscles tire quickly but allows animals to move suddenly and
very quickly.

EPOC (EXCESS POST-EXERCISE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION)

Biology Notes 5
 Lactic acid from muscles enters the blood and is carried to the liver, where it is converted
back into glucose. This needs a lot of energy and it comes from aerobic respiration in liver
cells.

The need for extra oxygen after exercise is called EPOC or oxygen debt.

It occurs if your body does not get enough oxygen during exercise.

Breathing and heartbeat rates remain high after you stop exercising to get extra oxygen to
your cells.

8D

8Da UNICELLULAR OR MULTICELLULAR

7 life processes : M.R.S.G.R.E.N (Movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration,
excretion and nutrition)

Organisms are based on cells.

Multicellular Unicellular

Organisms made of many cells are said Some organisms are made of just one
to be multicellular. cell.

Cells of the same type ——> tissues | One-celled organisms are described as
different tissues ——> organs | organs ——> being unicellular.
organ systems
They are also called microorganisms
Large multicellular organisms use organ because they are very small.
systems to help them carry out the life
processes.

DIFFUSION
Particles can move without anything moving them.

Diffusion is an overall movement of particles from a place where there are a lot of them
to a place where there are fewer of them.

Materials that a unicellular organism needs can diffuse into the cell and diffuse around
inside the cell.

Cells need large surface area : volume ratios to be able to take enough of the substances
they need.

The tissues in multicellular organisms need to have raw materials transported to them
because diffusion would be too slow.

Larger cells have smaller surface area : volume ratios.

Biology Notes 6
 KINGDOMS
All bacterias are in the prokaryote kingdom.

Unicellular protoctists are larger than bacteria.

Unicellular fungi are usually smaller than protoctists but bigger than bacteria

Unicellular organisms can only grow to a certain size.

Protoctists
Prokaryotes (all Fungi (mainly Plants (all Animals (all
Cell Part (mainly
unicellular) multicellular) multicellular) multicellular)
unicellular)

cytoplasm Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

cell membrane Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

nucleus No Yes Yes Yes Yes

mitochondria No Yes Yes Yes Yes

cell wall Yes Some Yes Yes No

chlroplasts No Some No Yes No

Biomass is the mass of organisms living in an area.

VIRUSES
Viruses are much smaller than bacteria.

They have no cell wall, no mitochondria, no nucleus and cannot live without being inside
a living cell. They are not living organisms.

Viruses are parasites and can be described using the term obligate parasite. Obligate
means that they cannot reproduce without being in their host.

Parasite is an organism or a virus that lives on or in a living host organisms and takes
food from it, causing harm to the host.

Virus particles consist of a protein coat that contains a strand of genes. The genes contain
the instructions for making new viruses.

Replication is when a virus gets into a cell, a strand of genes cause the cells to make new
copies of the same virus, which then burst out of the cell.

8Da TACKLING DISEASES

A pathogen is something that can spread between organisms and cause disease. Most
pathogens are microorganisms.

They can be treated with anti-biotics but over-using anti-biotics mean that the bacteria
become resistant to them.

Vaccine cause white blood cells to become able to destroy some bacteria or virus.
Vaccines can make us immune.

8Db MICROSCOPIC FUNGI

Biology Notes 7
 David Gruby (1810-1898) used a microscope to discover a fungus in the ‘rings’ in ringworm.
A fugus also causes athlete’s foot.

Unicellular yeasts were seen to use budding to reproduce.

Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a daugther cell grows out of a parent
cell.

In budding, the nucleus copies itself (including all the DNA). The new nucleus then moves
into the bud. The bud has identical inherited characteristics from the parent cell and
eventually splits from it.

Louis Pasteur (1882-1895) discovered that yeasts produce carbon dioxide and ethanol.

Giving air to yeast cells make it stop making ethanol.

Yeasts can use two forms of respiration.

Baking (Aerobic respiration) Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration releases more energy The anaerobic respiration of

from glucose and also produces much microorganisms is called fermentation.
more carbon dioxide.
glucose ——> carbon dioxide + ethanol
(+some energy)

GROWTH CURVES
Yeast cells need moisture, sugar and warmth to grow and reproduce.

Something that slows down or stops a process is called a limiting factor.

8Dc BACTERIA
Rotting occur when microorganisms got into things, and diseases are caused by bacteria.

There is always lactic acid and certain bacteria in sour drinks.

The bacteria uses a type of anaerobic respiration that produces lactic acid.

When it is warmer, enzymes making new substances work faster.

Moisture stops the cells from drying out.

Binary fission is when one cell grows and splits into two identitcal parts.

Lactic acid turns milk sour and thickens it.

Bacteria and fungi feed by releasing enzymes into their surroundings to digest large
organic molecules. These are then absorbed.

BACTERIAL CELLS
Bacteria are prokaryotes. They do not have nuclei and the information to control a cell is
found in a circular chromosome (made of DNA).

Biology Notes 8
 Some bacteria swim using flagella and each one spins to move a cell forward.

Different species of bacteria can be identified using a statement key.

8Dc PIE CHART

Step 1: Find the total number. (e.g 83 + 8 + 9 = 100).

Step 2: Work out the angle. Formula = 360/total number.

Step 3: Multiply by original number.

Step 4: Draw.

8Dd PROTOCTISTS
Protoctists are mostly unicellular but exist in many different shapes and sizes.

Algae use photosynthesis to produce organic molecules (molecules that contain carbon
atoms joined together.

carbon dioxide + water ——> glucose + oxygen

Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesising producers.

Chlorophyll traps energy transferred from the sun by light. Some of this energy is stored in
glucose and substances made from glucose.

Pyramid of numbers represent the numbers of organisms.

Primary producers = herbivores (primary consumers), secondary consumers = carnivores,

tentiary consumers = amvivores.

A way to show how energy is lost from the trophic levels is to use a pyramid of biomass.
This shows the mass of living material at each trophic level.

Ciguatera is caused by eating fish that have accumulated ciguatoxin, a toxin produced by
small algae that live on coral reefs.

8De DECOMPOSER AND CARBON

Microorganisms are important because they are decomposers; they break down dead
organisms and animal wastes in a process called decay to be used again by other
organisms.

Bacteria, fungi and protoctists are all decomposers.

Compost from kitchen and garden wastes is added to the soil because it contains nutrients
called mineral salts, these include nitrates (which contain a source of nitrogen).

Biology Notes 9
 Mineral salts are needed for growth.

RECYCLING CARBON
Organic compounds include carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Decomposers recycle the
carbon in these compounds.

The Carbon Cycle : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urzpnjwazV0

Biology Notes 10