MATHEMATICS REVIEWER

jan - mar 2023

I. Recall: Arithmetic can be represented as fractions
A. Basic Operations terminating decimal -> ex. 0.67 = 67/100

addend + addend = sum non-terminating repeating decimal -> ex. 0.414141… =

minuend - subtrahend = difference 41/99

multiplicand x multiplier = product ● irrational numbers

dividend / divisor = quotient (r remainder) cannot be represented as fractions

all non-terminating non-repeating decimals -> ex. π

P.E.M.D.A.S. (left to right) ● imaginary numbers (I)

i = √-1 is called the imaginary number
ex. {2.1351…,π,e,√2]
B. Number Properties ● complex numbers (C)

● commutative property combination of an imaginary and real number

x + y = y + x | xy = yx ex. {2+4i,-5+4i,1-i}

● associative propery ● prime numbers

(x + y) + z = x + (y+z) | (xy)z = x(yz) positive integers excluding 1 whose only factors are 1 and

● distributive propery itself

x(y + z) = xy + xz ex. {2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,...}

● additive identity property 2 is the only even and lowest prime number

x+0=x ● composite numbers

● multiplicative identity property positive integers excluding 1 that have more than two

(x)(1) = x factors

● additive inverse ex. {4,6,8,910,12,14,15,16,...}

the additive inverse of x is -x ● 1 is neither prime nor composite

● multiplicative inverse ● negative integers can also be even or odd

the multiplicative inverse of x/y is y/x ● negative integers can also be a factor of an

● reflexive property of equality integer

x=x ex. a factor of 65 is -13

x
● symmetric property of equality ● simplifying i where x = big number

if x = y, then y = x minus x by a multiple of 4 until you make it 1, 2, 3, or 4

1 2 3 4
● transitive property of equality then i = i ; i = -1 ; i = -1 ; i = 1
234 234-234 2
if x = y and y = z, then x = z ex. i = 232 is a multiple of 4 ; i = i = -1
● divided by zero
any number divided by zero is undefined
C. Type of Numbers ● root of a negative number with even index
n
● real numbers (R) if n is even, then √-x is an undefined real number ; it is a

all rational and irrational numbers complex number

● countring/natural numbers (N) ● golden ratio (ϕ)

{1,2,3,4,5,...} an irrational number

● whole numbers (W) ϕ = 1 + 1/(1+1/(1+1/… = (1+√5)/2 ≈ 1.618

{0,1,2,3,4,…} ● euler’s number (e)

● integers(Z) an irrational number ; the natural number

{...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} e ≈ 2.718

● termintating decimals ● roman numeral

decimals that ends 1 (I), 5 (V), 10 (X), 50 (L), 100 ( C), 500 (D), 1000 (M)

e. 3.64 ● roman numeral to decimal

● non-terminating repeating decimals start with the left-most letter

decimals that do not read but repeats a certain number find the longest combination possible

endlessly take note its decimal number

ex. 5.3333333… repeat until all letters are exhausted

● non-terminating non-repeating decimals sum up the noted decimal numbers to get its decimal

decimals that do not end and does not repeat a certain equivalent

number endlessly ex. CCXXXVII = 200 + 300 + 7 = 237 | MCMLIII = 1000 +

ex. 𝝅, e, √2 900 + 50 + 3 = 1953

● rational numbers (Q) ● decimal to roman numeral

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start with the left-most digit depending on the number of visible decimal places
take note of its corresponding combination 0.𝑥
=
0.𝑥 10
( 10 ) =
𝑥
𝑦 𝑦 10𝑦
repeat until all digits are exhausted ex.
0.45 100
( 100 ) =
45
3 300
combine the noted roman numerals
● finding the higher/lower value between two
ex. 142 = CXLII | 1039 = MXXXIX
fractions
multiply the numerator by the denominator of the other

D. Multiplication Table fraction, do the same to the other

compare
5 8
ex. 7
or 9
= 9 x 5 = 45 & 7 x 8 = 56 ; since 45 < 56, the first
fraction is lower
● fractions from lowest to highest
find the lcd
divide the lcd by each of the denominators
multiply the quotient to their corresponding numerator
compare
7 8 27 47
ex. 4 5 20 40
; lcd = 40 ; (40/4)(7)... ; 70, 64, 54, 47
● multiplying multiple fractions
do all possible cancelations first
8 9 10 11 8 × × × 8
ex. 9
x 10
x 11
x 13
= ×
x ×
x ×
x 13
= 13

● adding mixed numbers

E. Fraction and Decimal
add the whole numbers then fraction
1 1 1 1 2 3
● decimal to fractions ex. 15 3
+ 5 2 = (15+5)( 3 + 2 ) = 20( 6 + 6 ) ; since 3 6 , 2 4 6 &
convert only the decimal to fraction 2 x 1 , 3 x 1 ; = 20 6
5

divide the number after the decimal point by 10 or 100 or ● subtracting mixed numbers
1000… the number of 0’s = number of digits after the subtract the whole numbers then fraction
decimal point but when the resulting fraction is negative, subtract 1
75 3 23
ex. 5.75 = 5 100
or 5 4
or 4
after (5x4) + 3, 4 from the whole number and add 1 to the fraction
● fraction to decimal 1 1
ex. 5 3 - 2 2 = (5-2)( 3 -
1 1 2
) = 3( 6 -
3
)=3
−1
= (3-1)(
−1
+1) =
2 6 6 6
divide the numerator by the denominator −1 + 6 5
2( 6
) = 2( ) 6

F. Percentage

● percentage
ex.
“percent” = “per hundred”
● repeating decimal to fraction (I)
“15%” = “15 per 100” or 15/100
equate the equation to x
10(4) 40 20 2
write another equation by multiplying both sides of the ex. 10% of 4? 100
= 100
( 20 ) = 5
n
first equation by 10 (n = no. of repeating digits) ● percent to fraction
𝑥
subtract the two equations and solve for x x% = 100
2 2
ex. 0232323… = x ; (n = 2 [2,3]) , 10 x = (10 )(0.232323…) ; 100x ex. 45.2% =
45.2
= decimal move,
452
(4)=
4 113
100 1000 250
= (100)(0.232323…) ; 100x = 23.232323 ;
● percent of a percent!
“there are a total of x students. if y% of those students are
good and z% of those who are good are also smart, then
there are (x)(y%) who are good and (x)(y%)(z) who are both
good and smart”
ex. “in a club of 100 members, 25% play the piano and 20%
● repeating decimal into fraction (II) piano players also play bass. how many of tis members
get the repeating digit/s starting after the decimal point play both piano and bass?” ; 100(25%)(20%) = 100(.25)(.2) =
repeating number is divided by 9 / 99 / 999… number of 9’s 25(.2) = 5 members
depend on the number if digits in the repeating number ● decimal multiplied by whole number
ex. 0.461461… = 461/999 multiply regardless of decimal point then put point on the
● simplifying fraction with decimal sum to the left by how many actual decimal
multiply numerator and denominator by a multiple of 10 ; ● discount percentage

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use 1−
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
● 8 -> last three numbers must be divisible by 8
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒

ex. “a grocery store sells oranges at 30php each. if the ex. 43256? ; 256 is divisible by 8

store has a summer sale and sells the oranges at 23 pesos ● 9 -> sum of all must be divisible by 9

each, what is the discounted percentage of the sale?” ; 1- ex. 432657? ; 4 + 3 + 2 + 6 + 5 + 7 = 27 ; divisible by 9
23
= 1 - 0.77 = 0.23 = 23% ● 11 -> with the leftmost digit, 1st minus 2nd plus
30
3rd minus 4th plus 5th… until you reach the space
● how much larger than…
between the last two digits ; compute ; if the
x is larger/greater than y by a magnitude of x - y
result is divisible by 11, the original also is
ex. how much larger is 3x+1 than 3x-5? ; (3x+1) - (3x-5) = 4x
ex. 5342436? ; 5 - 3 + 4 - 2 + 4 - 3 + 6 = 11 ; divisible by 11
+ 1 - 3x + 5 = 6
multiplying by…
● how many times larger than…
● 15 -> half the number ; add it to original number ;
divide the two numbers
multiply by 10
the number with an “is” before it goes to the numerator
ex. 36 x 15 = 36/2 = 18 ; 18 + 36 = 54 x 10 = 540
ex. how many times larger than a + 3b is 9a + 27b? ;
9(𝑎 + 3𝑏) ● 25 -> divide the number by 4 ; multiply quotient
𝑎 + 3𝑏
= 9 ; since similar binomials were cancelled
by 100
● x is y% of what number
𝑥
ex. 52 x 25 = 52/4 = 13 x 100 = 1300
use 100( 𝑦 )
● squaring integers from 50 to 59
10
ex. 10 is 5% of what number? ; 100( 5
) = 100 (2) = 200 add the ones digit to 25 ; square the ones digit ; combine
● what part of x is y the two to get the answer
divide the two numbers 2 2
ex. 56 = 25 + 6 = 31 ; 6 = 36 ; 31 then 36 = 3136
the number with an “is” before it goes to the numerator
ex. what part of 10 is 100 ; 10/100 = 1/10
● what percentage of x is y H. Consecutive Integers
divide the two numbers ● sum of consecutive integers
the number with an “is” before goes to the numerator if the sum of 5 consecutive integer is x ; y + (y+1) + (y+2) +
convert fraction to percentage (y+3) + (y+4) = x ; where y is the smallest integer
ex. what percentage of 30 is 10? ; 10/30 = ⅓ = 0.33 = 33% ex. “if the sum of 3 consecutive integers is 15, what is the
● increasing by x% value of the largest integer?” ; y + (y+1) + (y+2) = 15 ; 3y + 3
the result is the product of that number and 1 + x% = 15 ; 3y = 15 - 3 ; 3y = 12/3 ; y = 4 ; integers: 4, 5, 6
ex. what is 432 increased by 5%? ; 432(1+0.05) = 432(1.05) = ● sum of consecutive even/odd integers
453.60 if the sum of 3 consecutive even/odd integer is y ; x + (x+2)
● decreasing by x% + (x+4) = y ; where x is the smallest integer
the result is the product of that number and 1-x% ex. “if the sum of 2 consecutive odd integers is 28, what
e. what is 123 decreased by 20%? ; 123(1-.20) = 123(.80) = are the integers?” ; x + (x+2) = 28 ; 2x + 2 = 28 ; 2x = 28 - 2 ;
98.4 2x = 26/2 ; x = 13 ; integers: 13, 15
● sum of consecutive integers: faster method
if the sum of n consecutive number is x, then x/n is the
G. Arithmetic Techniques
median (middle value) of the sequence
multiple of… ex. “if the sum of 5 consecutive integers is 20, smallest
● 3 -> sum of all must be divisible by 3 integer?” ; 20/5 = 4 is the median ; integers: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ;
ex. 541431? ; 5 + 4 + 1 + 4 + 3 + 1 = 18 ; divisible by 3 smallest is 2
● 4 -> last two numbers must be divisible by 4 ex. “if the sum of 4 consecutive integers is 42, 2nd
ex. 1235? ; 35 not divisible by 4 integer?” ; 42/4 = 10.5 is the median ; integers: 9, 10, 11, 12;
● 6 -> sum of all must be divisible by 3 and the 2nd is 10
number must be even ex. “if the sum of 4 consecutive even integers i 28, largest
ex. 35112? ; 3 + 5 + 1 + 1 + 2 = 12 ; divisible by 3 and 35112 even integer?” ; 28/4 = 7 is the median ; integers: 4, 6, 8, 10;
is even largest even is 10
● 7 -> get the rightmost digit, take it away ;
multiply it by 2 ; subtract the product from the
original number without its last digit ; repeat if I. Topic 1: Algebra
the result is still large ; if the final is divisible by A. Basic Concepts
7, then the original also is
● rounding up or down
ex. 43256? ; (6x2) = 12 ; 4325 - 12 = 4313 ; (3x2) = 6 ; 431 - 6 =
1,2,3,4 -> round down ; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 -> round up
425 ; (5x2) = 10 ; 42 - 10 = 32 ; not divisible by 7
ex. 2.3 = 2 ; 5.8 = 6

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succeeding digit is 5, it has non-zero digit after 5, round ● ‘x is less than y’ = ‘y-x’
up ex. 2 is less than an integer is 5, integer? ; x - 2 = 5 ; x = 5 +
ex. 2.51 = 3 2;x=7
succeeding digit is 5, it has a zero digit after 5, if the digit ● find x in terms of y
before 5 is even, round down put all the terms with an ‘x’ in the left side of the equation
ex. 2.5 = 2 and put all the other terms on the right side. further
succeeding digit is 5, it has zero digit after 5, the digit simplify the left side so that only ‘x’ is left
before 5 is odd, round up ex. if 5 - z = 2y + 5, find y in terms of z ; - 2y = 5 - 5 + z ;
ex. 3.50 = 4 −2𝑦
=
5−5+𝑧
; y = -z/2
−2 −2
● scientific notation ● solving vs substitution in a multiple choice
coefficient must be 1-9 question
moving the point to the left increases the exponent of 10 judging first if solving or substitution is easier in a ‘solve
moving the point to the right decreases the exponent of 10 for x’ problem
4
ex. 36000 = 3.6 x 10 ex. solve for x:
8
ex. 299792458? ; 2.99792458 x 10 (point moved 8 times to 2x = -4 [solving is faster] ;
2𝑥
=
−14
; x = -7
2 2
8
left) or 3.00 x 10 (speed of light) 3 3
2x - 5x = 39 [substitution using choices is faster] ; 2(3) -
● significant figures
5(3) = 39 ; 54 - 15 = 39
all non-zero digits
middle zeros
trailing zeros, if the decimal point is present B. Word Problems
ex. how many sig. fig. is 320.00? ; 5
● converting word problems to algebraic equations
● not significant figures
‘an integer/number’ -> x or any letter
leading zeros
‘is’ -> =
trailing zeros, if the decimal point is not present
ex. “the value of twice an integer is 1/8th the value of
ex. how many sig. fig. is 023?; 2
another integer. if the sum of the two integers is 34, what
● adding/subtracting using significant figures rules
is the smaller integer?” ; 2x = (⅛)y and x + y = 34 ; (8)(2x -
the lower number of significant figures present must be 17𝑥 34
(⅛)y) (8) = 0 ; y = 16x ; x + 16x = 34 ; 17x = 34 ; 17
= 17
;x
the number of significant figures of the sum/difference
= 2. thus, y = 16(2) ; y = 32
ex. 2.516 - 1.21 = 1.306 is 1.31 since 1.21 is lower and
● solving an expression
estimated difference is estimated
2𝑥+1 6
if this format of equation is given: = and the
● multiplying/dividing using significant figures 2 41

rules question asks to give the value of 2𝑥 + 1, then you don’t

the lowest number of significant figures present is the need to find the specific value of x, just solve for 2𝑥 + 1
number of significant figures in the product/quotient ex. find 2𝑥 + 1 if
2𝑥+1
=
6
; 41 2𝑥 + 1 = 6(2) [cross
2 41
ex. 1 x 213.2 = 213.2 is 200 since 1 is lower multiplication] ; 2𝑥 + 1 =
12
41
● sigma notation for sums
● x items in a container
sigma is used to denote a sum of multiple terms
if the question says that for every ‘container’ there are x
3
∑ i=0+1+2+3 ‘items’, then the total number of items if there are y
𝑖=0
containers is xy
4
∑ 2i + 3 = [2(1)+3] + [2(2)+3] + [2(3)+3] + [2(4)+3] ex. “each bag has 5 balls inside it. how many balls are
𝑖=1
3 there in total if there are a total of 10 bags?” ; 5 x 10 = 50
ex. ∑ i + 1 = (0+1) + (1+1) + (2+1) + (3+1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 ● checking if an expression is odd or even
𝑖=0

● inclusive substitute 1 for odd and 2 for even for a faster way

inclusive means that a range includes the two extreme ex. “if a & b are both odd numbers, then which of the

ends following must be an odd number?” ; e. a + b + 3 ; 1 + 1 +3

to find the number of items in an inclusive range, minus =5

the two ends and add one to the difference ● for the first x months, it costs y pesos. then z

ex. “carl read pages 139 - 225, inclusive, in his history pesos for each of the following months

book. how many pages did he read?” ; 225 - 139 = 86 + 1 = the cost for months that is within the first x montgs is

87 always y pesos

● distributing the negative sign! the cost for months that is greater than x months is yx

(x+y) - (a+b+c) = x + y - a - b + c plus the product of the number of the remaining months

ex. simplify [x-2(x+1)] - (2x+3) = (x-2x-2) - (2x+3) = (-x-2) - and z

(2x+3) = - x - 2 - 2x - 3 = - 3x - 5 ex. “a company rents graphing calculators for $15 a month

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 MATHEMATICS REVIEWER
jan - mar 2023
for the first 3 months and $10 for each of the following and j = x - 2 ; 15 years ago: c = x - 15 and j = x - 2 - 15 ;
months. if a student rents a calculator for 9 months, how (x-15) = 2(x-2-15) ; x - 15 = 2(x-17) ; x - 15 = 2x - 34 ; 2x - x -
much will she pay in rental fees?” ; 15(3) + 10(9-3) = 45 + 34 + 15 = 0 ; x = 19 ; c = 19 and j = 19 - 2 = 17
10(6) = 45 + 60 = 105 ● x years old y years from now
● speed (s) if carl will be x years old y years from now, then carl is
if an object is travelling at a constant speed, 𝑠 =
𝑑
; currently x - y years old
𝑡

where t = time and d = distance ex. “how old is maica if she will be 24 years old 6 years

ex. “a runner can run 10km in 50 minutes. what is his from now?” ; 24 - 6 = 18

speed in km/hour?” ; ● work problems

𝑠 =
10𝑘𝑚
50𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑥
60𝑚𝑖𝑛
1ℎ𝑟
=
600𝑘𝑚
50ℎ𝑟
= 12𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 refer to the formula 𝑡 ( 1
𝑥
+
1
𝑦 ) = 1 where ‘t’ is the time it
● distance (d) takes if both x and y work, ‘x’ is the time it takes for x to

if an object is traveling at a constant speed, 𝑑 = 𝑠𝑡 finish the work alone, and ‘y’ is the time it takes for y to

ex. “a car travels at a speed of 80km/hr. if the car keeps finish the work alone

going at the same rate, how many kilometers would he ex. “an inlet pipe can fill a tank in 2 hours and an outlet

travel for 13 hours?” ; 80 x 13 = 1040km pipe can empty a tank in 4 hours. if they are both left

● finding distances given two speeds and total time open, how long would it take to fill a tank? ; since it is

if an object travels from a to b at a constant speed of ‘s1’ empties, it must be negative sign ; 𝑡 ( 1
2
−
1
4 )= 1;
and then travels back from b to a at a constant speed of ‘s2’ 𝑡 ( 2
4
−
1
4 ) = 1 ; 𝑡( 1
4
) = 1 ; t = 4 hour
and it took ‘t’ hours for the whole trip, the distance ‘d’ ● work problems: find time working together
𝑡(𝑠1)(𝑠2)
from b to a can be calculated by 𝑑 = 𝑠1+𝑠2 if the number of hours x can do the job is ‘x’ and for y is
ex. “carl drives a constant speed of 50km/hr from his home ‘y’, then working togehter, they can finish the job in
𝑥𝑦
𝑥+𝑦
to a grocery store and 30km/hr in his way back. given that hours
the time taken for him to complete the trip is 2 hours, how ex. “joshua can finish a job in 5 hours and leonard can
far is his home to the grocery store?” ; finish a job in 10 hours. if they work together, how many
2(50)(30) 3000 75 (5)(10) 50
𝑑 = 50+30
= 𝑑 = 80
= 2
= 37. 5𝑘𝑚 hours would it take for them to finish a job?” ; 5 + 10
; 15
● two objects moving in the same direction ;
10
hours
3
if two objects start to move from the same position at
● solution problems
different speeds, ‘s1’ and ‘s2’, towards the same direction,
refer to the formula ax + by = (a+b)z
the relationship of their speeds to the distance ‘d’ between
where a = x% ; b = y% ; a + b = z%
𝑑
them in ‘t’ seconds is given by s1 - s2 = 𝑡
where s1 > s2 ex. “tim wanted to mix 5 liters of a drink that containts
ex. “two runners started running from the same starting 15% sugar with a drink that has 50% sugar already in it to
position towards the finish line. runner a ran with a speed make a drink that has 25% sugar. how many liters of the
of 5m/s, and runner b ran with a speed of 4m/s. by how drink with 50% sugar must he add to get that 25% sugar
many meters does runner b lead after 10 seconds?” ; 5 - 4 = drink? ; 5(15) + 50x = 25(5+x) ; 75 + 50x = 125 + 25x ; 25x =
𝑑 𝑑
10
; (10)(1 = 10
)(10) ; d = 10 50 ; x = 2 liters
● two objects moving towards each other ● angle of a clock
if two objects start approaching each other at speeds ‘s1’ θ [angle] = |30h -
11
𝑚 is the shorter angle formed between
2
and ‘s2’, the relationships of their speeds to the distance ‘d’ the hour and the minute hands of a clock where ‘h’ is the
between them and time ‘t’ it takes for them to meet is hour and ‘m’ is the minutes in a given time
𝑑
given by s1 + s2 = 𝑡 ex. “what is the angle between the hands of the clock if
ex. “two trains move at different railroads but move the time is 9:34?” ; θ =|30(9) −
11
(34) ; |270 - 187| ; |83| ;
2
towards each other. train a moves at the speed of 83˚
300km/hr and train b moves at the speed of 250km/hr. if
the length of their distances from each other is 900km,
how long would it take for the two trains to meet?” ; 300 + C. Ratio
900 900 550𝑡 900
250 = 𝑡
; (t)(550 = 𝑡
)(t) ; 550t = 900 ; 550
= 550
; t = 2s ● ratio
● age problems a comparison of two quantities
substitute x to one missing age, make the other ages in ● find x:z given x:y & y:z
terms of x x:z is equal to the product of the two ratios ;
𝑥
𝑥
𝑦
;
𝑥
𝑦 𝑧 𝑧
if it is y years from now, add y to ages ex. the ratio of x to y is
3
; the ratio of y to z is
2
; find the
4 3
if it is y years ago, minus y to ages 3 2 6 1
ratio of x to z ; 4
x 3
= 12
= 2
ex. “joshua is 2 years younger than carl. 15 years ago, carl
● given ratio and sum
is twice as old as joshua. how old are they now?” ; c = x

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 MATHEMATICS REVIEWER
jan - mar 2023
if the ratio of boys to girls (x/y) and the sum of all boys and ● joint variation
girls (z) are given, then boys =
𝑥𝑧
; girls =
𝑦𝑧
if y varies jointly to x & z, then y = kxz, where k is a
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥+𝑦

ex. “given the ratio of boys to girls who attend the praktiki constant

class is 5:7 and there are a total of 360 students, how many ex. “if y varies jointly to c and h and y = 24 when c = 2 and

total boys and girls attend the class?” ;

𝑥𝑧
=
5(360)
= h = 1, what is the value of y if c = 3 and h = 2?” ; y = kch ; 24
𝑥+𝑦 12
24 𝑘2
𝑦𝑧 7(360) = k(2)(1) ; 24 = k2 ; = ; k = 12 ; y = 12ch ; y = 12(3)(2)
5(30) [since 360/12 = 30] = 150 boys ; 𝑥+𝑦
= 12
= 7(30) 2 2

; y = 72
= 210 girls
● solving for constant of variation (k) -> joint
● proportion and proportion problems
divide both sides by xz
the equality of two ratios
𝑦 𝑘𝑥𝑧 𝑦
ex. 3:5 = 6:10 using y = kxz ; 𝑥𝑧
= 𝑥𝑧
; 𝑥𝑧
=𝑘

x is to y as w is to z ;
𝑥
=
𝑤 ● solving for x -> joint
𝑦 𝑧
divide both sides by kz
ex. “if 5 boxes weigh 10kg, then how much do 4 boxes
𝑦 𝑘𝑥𝑧 𝑦
5 4 = ; = 𝑥
weigh?” ; 10
= 𝑥
; 5x = 40 [cross multiplication] ; 𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑧

5𝑥 40 ● solving for z -> joint

5
= 5
; x = 8kg
divide both sides by kx
𝑦 𝑘𝑥𝑧 𝑦
𝑘𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥
; 𝑘𝑥
= 𝑧
D. Variation ● combined variation
both direct/joint and inverse variations
● variation
𝑘𝑥
a relation between a set of values of one variable and a set y varies directly to x and inversely to z, then y = 𝑧
, where

of values of another variable k is a constant

● direct variation ex. “suppose x varies jointly to y and z and inversely to w.
if y varies directly as x, then y = kx where k is a constant if x = 30 when y = 2, z = 3, and w = 1, what is the value of x
𝑘𝑦𝑧 𝑘(2)(3)
ex. “if y varies directly to z and y = 30 when z = 6, what is if w = 2, y = 1, and z = 2?” ; x = 𝑤
; 30 = 1
; 30 = k6 ;
30 𝑘(6) 30 𝑘6 5𝑦𝑧 (5)(1)(2) 10
the value of y if z = 2?” ; y = kz ; 30 = k(6) ; 6
= 6
;k= 6
= 6
;k=5;x= 𝑤
;x= 2
;x= 2
;x=5
5 ; k = 5z ; x = 5(2) ; y = 10
● solving for constant of variation (k) -> direct
E. Integers
divide both sides by x
using y = kx, solving for k ;
𝑦
=
𝑘𝑥
;
𝑦
=𝑘 ● adding integers
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

ex. does y vary directly as x? ; similar - add & copy sign

different - subtract & copy sign of highest value
x 2 [k = 4] 3 [k = 4] 5 [k = 4]
● subtracting integers
y 8 12 20 similar - subtract & copy sign

thus y varies directly as x ; k = 4 and equation y = 4x different - add & copy sign of highest value

● solving for x -> direct

divide both sides by k
F. Sets and Set Notation
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
𝑘
= 𝑘𝑥
; 𝑘
=𝑥
● sets
● inverse/indirect variation
𝑘 a set is a collection of elements represented by the curly
if y varies inversely to x, then y = 𝑥
where k is a constant
symbol {}
ex. “if j varies inversely to x and j = 4 when x = 1, what is
● all elements of a set are unique
𝑘 𝑘 4
the value of j if x = 4?” ; j = ;4= ;k=4;j= ;j=
𝑥 1 𝑥 the same element is only written once
4
4
; j =1 ex. “let a represent the set of positive multiples of 2 that
● solving for constant of variation (k) -> inverse are less than 12, and let b represent the set of positive
multiply both sides by x multiples of 5 that are less than 20. how many numbers
𝑘 𝑘𝑥
using 𝑦 = 𝑥
; 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥
; xy = k are in both sets?” ; a = {2,4,6,8,10} and b = {5,10,15} ; a∪b =
ex. does y vary inversely as x? {2,4,6,8,10,15} ; there are 6 numbers in boths sets
● set builder notation
x 3 [k = 60] 6 [k = 60] 12 [k = 60]
set builder notation is used to represent the collection of
y 20 10 5 all the elements of a set
thus y varies inversely as x; k = 60 and equation y =
60
‘:’ and ‘|’ -> “such as”
𝑥

● solving for x -> inverse {x:x<2} -> “the set of all x such that x is less than 2”

divide both sides of xy = k by y {x∈R|x>0} -> ∈ “the element of” ; R - “all real numbers”
𝑥𝑦
=
𝑘
;𝑥 =
𝑘 ● interval notation
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

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c
interval notation is also used to represent the collection of a contains all elements not in a
all the possible values of x.
‘()’ -> exclusion, infinities ; ‘[]’ -> inclusion
ex. (1,4) means the collection of all real numbers between 1
and 4, excluding 1 and 4
[2,5] means the collection of all real numbers between 2
c
and 5, including 2 and 5. ex. find a if a = {a,b,c} and b = {c,d,e} ; {d,e}
(-∞,2], (3,10), [0,∞) ● |a∪b| = |a| + |b| - |a∩b|
● roster notation ex. “if there are 5 students who love english and 4 who
roster notation represents sets via listing all of its love history and 2 loves both, how many students love
elements inside a curly bracket english or history?” ; 5 + 4 - 2 = 7
● set symbols ● |a∪b| = |a–b| + |a∩b| + |b–a|
⊂ -> proper subset ; ⊆ -> subset ; ⊃ -> proper superset ex. “if there are 5 students who only love english and 4
⊇ -> superset ; ∈ -> element ; ∉ -> not an element who love history and 2 loves both, how many students love
⋃ -> universal set ; ∅ -> null/empty set ; |A| - cardinality or english or history?” ; 5 + 2 + 4 = 11
size of the set ● |a∪b∪c| = |a| + |b| + |c| - |a∩b| - |b∩c| - |a∩c| +
● a∪b : union |a∩b∩c|
a∪b is the union of a and b ex. “in a school, there are 600 who attend english classes,
500 who attend math, 400 who attend science, 100 attend
both english and math, 15 attend both math and science,
50 attend both english and science, and 20 who attends to
all. how many students are there all?” ; 600 + 500 + 400 -
100 - 15 - 50 + 20 = 1220 students

ex. find a∪b if a = {a,b,c} and b = {c,d,e} ; {a,b,c,d,e} ● elements in one set

● a∩b : intersection if there are x elements in a, y elements in b, and z

a∩b is the intersection of a and b elements in both a and b, then there are z - x elements in a
only and z - y elements in b only

ex. find a∩b if a∩b if a = {a,b,c} and b = {c,d,e} ; {c}

● a–b or a\b : set difference x elements in a ; y elements in b ; z elements in both a and
a–b or a\b is the set of a minus the set of b where the b
elements present in a that are also in b are deleted in a ex. “there are 5 students in a math class and 4 students are
members of a band. if only 1 student is both a member of a
band and in a math class, how many students are
attending math class only?” ; 5 - 1 = 4
● infinite sets can have infinite union or
intersection
ex. find a–b if a = {a,b,c} and b = {c,d,e} ; {a,b} ex. “let a represent the set of positive multiples of 5, and
● a⊕ or Δ b ; symmetric difference (disjunctive let b represent the st of positive multiples of 7. how many
union) numbers are in set a and set b?” ; infinitely many
a⊕b = (a∪b) – (a∩b) = (a–b) ∪ (b–a)
a⊕b is the set containing all elements that are either in a
or in b, but not both G. Sequence and Series

● sequence
a list of things arranged in a specific order
ex. 3, 5, 7, 9… ; ellipsis means the sequence continues
ex. logic, geometric, and number patterns ; fibonacci
sequence - next numver is the sum of the previous two
● finite sequence
ex. find a⊕b if a = {a,b,c} and b = {c,d,e} ; {a,b,d,e} have a fixed number of terms
c
● a : complement the last term can be identified
c
a =∪–a ex. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 ; 2, 6, 2, 6, 2, 6

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● infinite sequence solve for n
have an infinite number of terms if the value for n is not a whole number, it is not a term in
no last term the sequence
ex. 1, 5, 9, 12, 17,... ; 2, 6, 2, 6, 2, 6,...
ex. an = 8n - 17 ; an = 143 ; 143 = 8n - 17 ; 143 = 8n - 17 ; 143
● notations
+ 17 = 8n ; 160 = 8n ; 20 = n ; “143 is the 20th term in the
a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an-2, an-1, an ; where n is the position of the
term in the sequence sequence”
a1 - first term ● determine the missing terms
a2 - second term use the explicit formula
a3 - third term substitue the given values
a4 - fourth term
solve for the common difference
an-2 - (n-2)th term
solve for the missing terms
an-1 - (n-1)th term
ex. 8, _, _, _, 20, … ; a5 = a1 + d(5-1) ; 20 = 8 + d(5-1) ; 20 = 8 +
an - nth term (last term)
● arithmetic sequence 4d ; 20 - 8 = 4d ; 12 = 4d ; d = 3
there is a common difference (d) between consecutive a2 = a1 + d a3 = a2 + d a4 = a3 + d
terms which is constant
a2 = 8 + 3 a3 = 11 + 3 a4 = 14 + 3
d = an - an-1
a2 = 11 a3 = 14 a4 = 17
ex. 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, … ; common difference is 5
formula: first term + common difference (term no. minus one) ● problem solving for arithmetic sequene

term no. amount formula

ex. “everyday a radio station asks a question for a prize of
Php 1500. If none answers correctly, the prize increases by
1 20 20 + 5(0) Php 1500 each day until one answers correctly. Suppose no
one answers correctly for 7 days, how much would be the
2 25 20 + 5(1)
prize on the 8th day?” ; a1 = 1500 , d = 1500 , a8 = ? ; a8 = a1 +
3 30 20 + 5(2) d(8-1) ; a8 = 1500 + 1500(7) ; a8 = 1500 + 10500 = a8 = 12000
ex. “your trainer suggests jogging for 12 minutes each day
4 35 20 + 5(3)
for the first week. each week thereafter, he suggests that
you increase by 6 minutes per day. how many weeks will it
5 40 20 + 5(4)
be before you are up to jogging 60 minutes per day?” ; a1 =
20 115 20 + 5(19) 12 , d = 6 , an = 60 ; an = 12 + 6(n-1) ; 60 = 12 + 6(n-1) ; 60 = 12
54 6𝑛
+ 6n - 6 ; 60 = 6 + 6n ; 60 - 6 = 6n ; = ; n = 9 ; “it will
n 20 + 5(n-1) 6 6

take 9 weeks
● nth term in an arithmetic sequence
● arithmetic series
an = a1 + d(n-1) ; general term
sum of terms in an arithmetic sequence denoted by Sn
where n is the term number ; an is the nth term ; a1 is the
Sn = a1 + a2 + … + an
first term ; d is the common difference
ex. 20 + 25 + 30 + 35 + … + 275
to find the nth term, let n = nth in the explicit formula ;
● sum of the terms in an arithmetic series
first, let n = 1 𝑛
Sn = 2
(a1+an)
ex. “for the first five weeks you save 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40,
where Sn - sum of the first n terms ; n is the term number ;
respectively. how much should you save on the 52nd
a1 is the first term ; an is the nth term
week?” ; an = a1 + d(n-1) ; a52 = 20 + 5(52-1) ; a52 = 25(51) ; a52
solve for the nth term first using the general formula
= 275
use the formula for Sn
ex. “find the first term of the sequence given that its
substitue the given values
explicit formula is an = 6n - 13” ; a1 = 6(1) - 13 ; a1 = -7
simplify
● explicit formula
ex. “determine the sum of the first ten terms of the
use the formula for the general term
sequence -8, -3, 2, 7, …” ; a10 = a1 + d(n-1) ; a10 = -8 + 5(10-1) ;
substitute the value of the first term and the common 𝑛 10
a10 = -8 + 45 ; a10 = 37 ; S10 = (a1+an) ; S10 = (-8+a10) ; S10 =
difference 2 2
10
simplify 2
(-8+37) ; S10 = 5(29) ; S10 = 145

ex. “what is the explicit formula?” ; an = a1 + d(n-1) ; an = 20 ● find n in arithmetic series

+ 5(n-1) ; an = 20 + 5n - 5 ; an = 5n + 15 ex. “consider 7 + 5 + 3 + 1 + …, find n such that Sn = -20 and

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
ex. 1,
3
, 2,
5
, 3, … where d =
1
; an = a1 +d(n-1) ; an = 1 +
1 an = -11” ; Sn = 2
(a1+an) ; -20 = 2
(7-11) ; -20 = 2
(-4) ; -20 =
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 -2n ; n = 10
(n-1) ; an = 1 + 2
n= 2
; an = 2
n+ 2
● sum of the terms with missing values
● finding term with given value
get the common difference using the given values
get the explicit formula for a sequence
get the first term a1
substitute the given value to the explicit formula then

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n-1 4-1 3
solve for the sum of the terms ex. -6, _, _, 1296 ; an = a1 x r ; a4 = a1 x r ; 1296 = -6(r ) ;
ex. “_, 12, _, _, _, 36, …, what is the sum of the first 6 1296
=
−6(𝑟3) 3
; -216 = r ; − 216 = 𝑟3 ; r = -6 ; a2 = a1 x
3 3

−6 −6
terms?” ; using the two given values, get the common r
2-1
; a2 = -6(-6) ; a2 = 36 (same process as a3 = -216) ; -6, 36,
difference ; a6 = a2 + d(6-2) where 6 - 2 is the difference of -216, 1296
the given term numbers ; 36 = 12 + d(4) ; 36 - 12 + 4d ; 24 = ● finding the term number
4d ; d = 6 ; to get a1 you can use formula for either given use the formula for the nth term and substitute the given
term numbers ; a6 = a1 + d(6-1) ; 36 = a1 + 6(5) ; 36 = a1 + 30 ; values
6 6
a1 = 6 ; use the formula for S6 ; S6 = 2
(a1+a6) ; S6 = 2
(6+36) ; determine n
S6 = 3(42) ; S6 = 126 ex. “which term is 27 where the 3rd term is 1 and the
n-1
● geometric sequence common ratio is 3?” ; an = 27 , a3 = 1, r = 3 ; an = a1 x r ; an
n-3 n-3 n-3
each term after the first term is obtained by multiplying = a3 x r ; 27 = 1(3) ; 27 = (3) ; express 27 as an
the previous term by a constant value called the common exponential expression of base 3 which is same as the
ratio r right side “to what value should 3 be raised so that its
3 n-3
ex. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, … result is 27?” ; 3 = (3) ; 3 = n - 3 ; n = 6 ; “27 is the 6th
● common ratio term”
𝑟 =
𝑎𝑛
(n and n-1 are subscripts) ● compute for missing term given a variable
𝑎𝑛−1

where an is the nth term ; an-1 is the previous term always get the common ratio first
𝑎𝑛 𝑎3 64
ex.
1
, 1, 4, 16, … ; 𝑟 =
𝑎𝑛
;𝑟 =
16
;r=4 ex. “find k in k, -8, 64, …” ; r = 𝑎𝑛−1
;r= 𝑎2
;r= −8
; r = -8
4 𝑎𝑛−1 4

ex. -24, 12, -6, 3, … ; 𝑟 =

𝑎𝑛
;𝑟 =
3
;
−1 you may use the formula for the common ratio or for the
𝑎𝑛−1 −6 2
nth term
● getting the next terms
ex. note that the ratio of a value to its previous term must
multiply the common ratio to the previous term
be constant to the ratio of another consecutive terms ; r =
repeat the process
𝑎2 −8 −8 −8 −8𝑘 −8 n-1
ex. “write the first 4 terms in which a1 = 6 and r = -3” ; 6, 𝑎1
; -8 = 𝑘
; 1
= 𝑘
; −8
= −8
; k = 1 ; or ; a2 = a1 x r
2-1 −8 −8𝑘
(6x-3) = -18, 54, -162 ; -8 = k(-8) ; -8 = k(-8) ; −8
= −8
;k=1
● nth term of a geomteric sequence ● geometric series
n-1
ab = a1 x r the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence
where a1 is the first term; r is the common ratio ; n is the ● finite geometric series
term number Sn =
𝑎1−𝑎𝑛𝑟
or Sn =
𝑎1(1−𝑟𝑛)
; one has an , one does not
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
ex. “given that first term a1 is 2 and common ratio r is 2” where r ≄1 ; Sn is the sum of the first n terms ; a1 is the first

term value term ; an is the nth term ; r is the common ratio ; n is the
number of terms
0
1 2=2x2 ex. “given 16, 32, 64, 128, … what is the total salary for your
10
𝑎1(1−𝑟𝑛) 16(1−2 )
2 4=2x2
1 10 days of work?” ; Sn = 1−𝑟
; S10 = 1−2
; S10 =
16(1−1024)
−1
; S10 = -16(-1023) ; S10 = 16,368
2
3 8=2x2
● sum of the series v.1
4 16 = 2 x 2
3 find the common ratio first by considering a pair of
consecutive terms
4
5 32 = 2 x 2
find the sum of the nth terms given the formula Sn =
𝑎1−𝑎𝑛𝑟 𝑎1(1−𝑟𝑛)
6 64 = 2 x 2
5
1−𝑟
or Sn = 1−𝑟

ex. “find the sum of the first eight terms of 3 + 9 + 27 + …” ;

6
7 128 = 2 x 2 𝑎2 9 𝑎1[1−𝑟 ]
8
3[1−(3) ]
8
r = 𝑎1
; r = 3
; r = 3 ; S8 = 1−𝑟
; S8 = 1−3
; S8 =
−19,680
n an = a1 x r
n-1
−2
; S8 = 9840

ex. “find the 10th term in which a1 = 2 and r = 3” ; an = a1 x ● finding a missing term with given values
8
n-1 10-1 𝑎1[1−𝑟 ]
r ; a10 = 2(3) ; a10 = 2(19,683) ; a10 = 39,366 ex. “find a1 in which S8 = 1020 and r = 2” ; S8 = 1−𝑟
;
● finding the missing terms
8
𝑎1[1−2 ] 𝑎1[−255] 1020 𝑎1(255)
1020 = 1−2
; 1020 = −1
; 255
= 255
; a1 = 4
find the common ratio first
● sum of the series v.2
use the formula
ex. “find the sum of the series 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + … + 6144” ;
substitute the given values
r = 2 , a1 = 6 , an = 6144 ; n is not needed so use the first
solve for r by rooting both sides of the equation 𝑎1−𝑎𝑛𝑟 6−(6144)(2) −12,282
formula ; Sn = 1−𝑟
; Sn = 1−2
; Sn = −1
; Sn =
solve for the missing term by multiplying or using the
n-1
12,282
formula for the nth term an = a1 x r ; replace n for the
● find the common ratio, and the number of terms
missing term number
given the a1, an, and Sn

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 MATHEMATICS REVIEWER
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ex. “the first term is 5 and the nth term is 405. if the sum ● dividing polynomials (common factor of higher
of the first n terms is 605, find r and n” ; a1 = 5 , an = 405 , degree)
Sn = 605 ; find r ; Sn =
𝑎1−𝑎𝑛𝑟
; 605 =
5−(405)𝑟
; common factors whose exponent is greater than 1 but its
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
605
=
5−(405)𝑟
; 605(1-r) = 5 - (405)r ; 605 - 605r = 5 - 405r ; the same ; cancel
1 1−𝑟 3
(𝑥+1) (𝑥−4) 𝑥−4
605 - 5 = -405r + 605r ; 600 = 200r ;
600
=
200
; r = 3 ; find n ex. 3 = 𝑥
200 𝑟 (𝑥+1) 𝑥

common factors whose exponent is greater than 1 but its

𝑛−1
n-1 n-1 405 5(3) n-1
; an = a1 x r ; 405 = 5(3) ; 5
= 5
; 81 = (3) ; “to
4 different; subtract the exponent and put the resulting
what value should 3 be raised so that it results to 81?” ; 3
n-1 m n factor in the side of the higher exponent
= (3) ; do one-to-one property where b = b then m = n ;
3
(𝑥+1) (𝑥−4) 𝑥−4
4=n-1;n=5 ex. 5 = 2
(𝑥+1) (𝑥+2) (𝑥+1) (𝑥+2)
● general tip for sequence and series word ● special products
problems
name of given factors special name of
find all given and choose a formula in which the missing
factors product special prod.
is present as a variable and all given are present also
2 2 2
square of a (x+y) = x + 2y + y perfect
binomial square
H. Polynomials (x-y) =
2 2
x - 2xy + y
2
trinomial

● rule of polynomials
sum and difference of
exponents should always be positive difference of (x+y)(x-y) =
2
x -y
2
two terms
no variables in any denominator 2 terms
no variables under a radical sign
2 2 3 3
(x+y)(x -xy+y x +y sum of two
● parts of polynomials
binomial and )= cubes
term ; numerical coefficient ; variable ; degree
a related
● types of polynomials 2
(x-y)(x +xy+y
2 3
x -y
3
difference of
trinomial
2
monomial - one term ; ex. 3x )= two cubes
2
binomial - two terms ; 2x + x
3 3 2
3 2 cube of a (x+y) = x + 3x y + polynomial
trinomial - three terms ; y - 2x + x
2 3
binomial 3xy + y with 4 terms
note that polynomials are classified per their simplest
form (x-y) =
3 2
x - 3x y +
2

● adding or subtracting polynomials 3xy + y

2 2

combine terms of the same variable and degree by adding

their numerical coefficients
● cube of a binomial
2 3 3
ex. x - 2x + x - 4x + 3 = -x - 3x + 3
first and last term - cube the first and last terms of a
for subtraction, remove the parenthesis, change minus to
binomial
add, and change signs of the second expression 2
second term - 3(first) (last)
4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3
ex. (2x + x ) - (x - x + 1) = 2x + x - x + x - 1 = x + 2x - 1 2
third term - 3(first)(last)
● multiplication of polynomials (foil) 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
ex. (2x-y) ; (2x) = 8x ; 3(2x) (-y) = -12x y ; 3(2x)(-y) = 6xy ;
used for two binomials 3 3 2 2 2 3
(-y) = -y ; 8x - 12x y + 6xy - y
first ; outer ; inner ; simplify
● product of square of binomial
2 2
ex. (2x-1)(x+3) ; 2x + 6x - x - 3 ; 2x + 5x - 3
square the first term
● multiplication of polynomials (distributive)
multiply the first and last term and multiply the product
distribute all terms of the first expression to the other
by 2
2
ex. (x)(2x+40) ; 2x + 40x
square the last term
● multiplication of polynomials (box method) 2 2 2 2 2
ex. (4x+2y) ; (4x) = 16x ; (4x)(2y) = 8xy(2) = 16xy ; (2y) = 4y ;
2 2 2
x -5x 4 16x + 16xy + 4y

3 2
● product of a binomial and a related trinomial
2x 2x -10x 8x
2 2 3 3
(a+b)(a -ab+b ) ; a sum of two cubes ; a + b
2 2 2 3 3
-5 -5x 25x -20 (a-b)(a +ab+b ) ; difference of two cubes ; a - b
3
= 2x - 15x + 33x - 20
2 ● shortcuts for variable exponents in fractions
𝑚
● dividing polynomials (common factor of degree 𝑥
𝑛 = 𝑥
𝑚−𝑛
; if x
m>n
𝑥
one) 𝑥
𝑚
1 m<n
= ; if x
factor the numerator and denominator and cancel same
𝑛 𝑚−2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑚
𝑥
factors 𝑛 = ; if m = n
𝑥

ex.
𝑥 (𝑥+2)(3𝑥−1)
(3𝑥−1)(𝑥−1)𝑥
=
(𝑥+2)
(𝑥−1)
● factoring difference of two squares

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sum and difference of two terms the coefficient of the fourth and fourth to the last term is
2 2
x - y = (x+y)(x-y) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
3!
6 6 0 5 1 4 2 (6)(5)(4) 3 3 2 4 1 5
𝑥
2 2
𝑦 =x,y (x+y) = x y + 6x y + 15x y + 3!
x y + 15x y + 6x y +
2 0 6
ex. m - 25 = (m+5)(m-5) xy
2 2
ex. 16m - 8ln = (4m+9n)(4m-9n) continue putting
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
until all of the terms have
3!
● factoring perfect square trinomial their corresponding coefficients
binomial square
2 2 2
x + 2xy + y = (x+y)
I. Rational Expression
𝑥 — 𝑦
to check if perfect: ● 4 properties of equality
get the square root of first & last term APE x - 10 = 15
multiply them by 2 x = 15 + 10
2 2 2 x = 25
ex. 9x + 12x + 4 ; ( 9𝑥 )( 4)(2) ; (3x)(2)(2) = 12x ; 9x + 12x
2
+ 4 ; (3x+2)
SPE x + 10 = 15
● factoring sum and difference of two cubes x = 15 - 10
3 3 2 2
x - y = (x-y)(x +xy+y ) x=5
2 2
(f-l)(f +fl+l )
3
MPE 𝑥
( 10 = 15)
3 3 2 2 2
ex. x - 8 ; ( 𝑥 ) - ( 8) = x - 2 ; (x +2x+2 ) = (x +2x+4) ;
3

x = 15(10)
2
(x-2)(x +2x+4) x = 150
3 3 2
ex. 5x - 5 ; 5(x -1) ; 5(x-1)(x +x+1)
● factoring 2nd degree quadratic trinomial DPE 10x = 150
10𝑥 150
ac test method 10
= 10
2
ax + bx + c x = 15

? | c | b | ? ; c - product of ?? ; b - sum of ??
2
ex. x + 9x + 20 ; (?? | 20 | 9 | ??) ; (5 | 20 | 9 | 4) since (5x4) = ● rational expression
20 , (5+4) = 4 ; (x+5)(x+4) undefined at any value that produces a denominator of 0
2
ex. x + x - 12 ; (?? | -12 | 1 | ??) ; (4 | -12 | 1 | -3) since (4x-3) = allowed = domain ; not allowed = restricted value
-12 , (4+-3) = 1 ; (x+4)(x-3) ● restricted value
● expanding square of a binomial set the denominator equal to 0
2 2 2
(a+b) = a + 2ab + b factor out the denominator if possible then set each factor
2 2 2
ex. (2x-3) ; 4x + 2(2x)(-3) + 9 ; 4x -12x + 9 equal to 0
● expanding square of trinomial solve the value of the unknown variable using properties
2 2 2 2
(a+b+c) = a + b + c + 2(ab+bc+ac) of equality
2 2 2 2 2
ex. (x+y-2) ; x + y + 4 + 2(xy-2y-2x) ; x + y + 2xy - 4y - 4x + ex.
3𝑥+4
=
3(0)+4
; restricted value ; x = 0 ; domain ; d =
𝑥 0
4 {x|x ∈ R, x ≄ 0}
● expanding cube of a binomial ● domain
3 3 2 2 3
(a+b) = a + 3a b + 3ab + b set of all real numbers except those for which the
3 3 2
ex. (x-1) ; x -3x + 3x -1 denominator is 0
● binomial theorem: expanding a binomial given set the denominator equal to 0
n
(x+y) solve for the value of the variable
put a series of x’s with its exponent decreasing from n to 0 𝑥+2 2𝑥 5
ex. 2𝑥−5
; restricted value ; 2x - 5 = 0 ; 2x = 5 ; 2
= 2
; 2x
and a series of y’s with its exponent increasing from 0 to n 5 5
= ; domain ; d = {x|x ∈ R, x ≄ }
in each term 2 2
2𝑥 2
6 6 0 5 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 5 0 6 ex. ; restricted value ; x + 5x - 14 = 0 ; ac test ; (? |
(x+y) = x y + x y + x y + x y + x y + x y + x y 𝑥2+5𝑥−14

the coefficient of the first and last term is always 1 -14 | 5 | ?) ; (7 | -14 | 5 | -2) ; x + 7 = 0 , x = -7 ; x - 2 = 0 , x = 2 ;
6 6 0
(x+y) = x y + x y + x y + x y + x y + x y + x y
5 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 5 0 6 domain ; d = {x|x ∈ R, x ≄ -7 and x ≄ 2}

the coefficient of the second and second to the last term is ● simplifying rational expression
𝑛 cancel out similar variables if possible
always 1!
=n
6 6 0 5 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 5 0 6 divide both by their gcf
(x+y) = x y + 6x y + x y + x y + x y + 6x y + x y
subtract exponents
the coefficient of the third and third to the last term is
𝑛(𝑛−1) write the variable where it has highest power
2!
write “simplified” when done
6 6 0 5 1 (6)(5) 4 2 3 3 (6)(5) 2 4 1 5
(x+y) = x y + 6x y + xy +xy + x y + 6x y +
2! 2! ● steps to simplifying rational expression
0 6
xy

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factor the numerator and denominator solutions are part of the line
cancel or divide out the common factors on numerator find the least three solutions for the given equation
and denominator make table of value
get the product of the remaining factors sketch the graph
ex.
2𝑥+3
= simplified ● cartesian plane
𝑥−2

ex.
𝑥+2
;
𝑥+2
;
1 by rene descartes
2 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 𝑥−2
𝑥 −4
2 joined algebra and geometry
𝑥 +2𝑥+24 (𝑥+6)(𝑥−4) 𝑥+6
ex. ; (? | -24 | 2 | ?) ; 6 | -24 | 2 | ?) ; ;
2𝑥−8 2(𝑥−4 2 x-y plane ; x - horizontal ; y - vertical
● tip ● slope (m)
𝑎−𝑏 𝑥−5
𝑏−𝑎
=− 1 ; −5+𝑥
= 1 steepness of line
● work problem ratio of vertical to horizontal change
1
work = rate x time ; where 𝑥
= work rate change in y over x
ex. “if franz can paint the entire room in 2x + 3 hours, find ● types of graphs
2
the rate of work” ;
1
rising line - positive ; red ; 3
2𝑥+3

● multiplication of rational expressions falling line - negative ; blue ;

2
−3
𝑝 𝑟 𝑝𝑟 0
𝑞
𝑥 𝑠
= 𝑞𝑠 horizontal line - zero ; green ; 4
6(𝑥+2) 9(𝑥−2) 3 3 9 9
ex. 3(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
𝑥 10(𝑥+3)
; 1
𝑥 5(𝑥−3)
; 5(𝑥−3)
; 5𝑥−15 vertical line - undefined ; purple ;
4
0
● division of rational expressions
2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 4 1 4 4
𝑦
/ 4
; reciprocal of second fraction ; 𝑦
x 2 ; 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥
; 𝑦𝑥
𝑥
2𝑥−4 5𝑥−10 2𝑥−4 6 2(𝑥−2) 6 2 6
ex. 9
/ 6
; 9
x 5𝑥−10
; 9
x 5(𝑥−2)
; 9
x 5
;
2 2 4
3
x 5
; 15

● add or subtract fractions

add/minus the factor
copy similar denominators
● adding rational expressions
𝑚 4𝑚 5𝑚 𝑚
+ ; ;
5𝑥 5𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 ex.
2 2 2
𝑚 +7𝑚−11 3−5𝑚 𝑚 +7𝑚−11+3−5𝑚 𝑚 + 2𝑚 − 8
ex. 𝑚−2
+ 𝑚−2
; 𝑚−2
; 𝑚−2
; ● methods of slope finding
(𝑚+4)(𝑚−2)
𝑚−2
;m+4 graphical method m=
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
● subtracting rational expressions
8𝑦
−
16
;
8𝑦−16
;
8(𝑦−2)
;8 slope formula given: two points in the line
𝑦−2 𝑦−2 𝑦−2 𝑦−2
P1(x1, y1) ; P2(x2, y2)
apply subtracting polynomials method of remove the ∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
m= =
parenthesis, change minus to add, and change signs of the ∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

second expression standard from table of values

given: y = -2x + 3
x = -1, 0, 1 ; y = 5, 3, 1
J. Linear Equations/Functions
P1(-1,5) ; P2(0-1)
3−5
● linear equation m= 0−1
; -2

first degree equation

slope-intercept form will be discussed
ax + by = c
2
ex. 4x + 3y = 12 ; a = 4 , b = 3 , c = 12 ; (x)(5x) + y = 9 ;
quadratic ● slope-intercept form
● turn the equation into linear standard form y-intercept - value of y where the graph hits the y-axis
y = -x -4 ; x + y = 4 b = y-intercept ; y = mx + b
ex. 3y = 2(x+1) ; 3y = 2x + 2 ; -2x + 3y = 2 ex.
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
ex. ( 4 + 5
= 1) ; ( 4 + 5
= 1)(20) ; 5x + 4y = 20 y = mx + b slope y-intercept graph
● solutions of linear equation
y = -2x + 3 -2 3 falling
ordered pairs that make the equation true
ex. if x = 5 , y = ? ; 4x + 2y = 20 ; 4(5) + 2y = 20 ; 20 + 2y = 20 ; 3x + 4y = 8
2𝑦 0
2y = 20-20 ; 2y = 0 ; 2
= 2
;y=0 4𝑦
=
−3𝑥
+
8 −3𝑥
2 falling
4 4 4 4

linear equation in 2 variables has infinite solutions y=

−3𝑥
4
+2
● graph of linear equation
a straight line

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● formula for standard form lines
−𝑎 𝑐
m= 𝑏
;b= 𝑏
−3 8
ex. 3x + 4y = 8 ; m = 4
;b= 4
;2
● forms and properties of linear equation

forms of linear linear equation needed properties

equation
ex.
standard form ax + by = c constants (a,b,c) ● graphical methods
the single point of intersection is a solution to either
slope intercept y = mx + b slope (m)
y-intercept (b)
equation

graph & slope y-interce number type of

point slope y - y1 = m(x-x1) slope (m)
type of pt of system
any point (x1,y1)
sle solutions

two point y - y1 =
𝑦2−𝑦1
(x-x1) two points
𝑥2−𝑥1 intersecti not equal either one consisten
ng lines t&
two intercepts 𝑥
+
𝑦
=1 x intercept
𝑎 𝑏 independ
y intercept
ent

for horizontal y=b y intercept

parallel equal not equal none inconsist
slope = 0
lines ent

for vertical x=a x intercept

coincidin equal equal many consisten
slope = undefined
g lines t&
dependen
general form ax + by + c = 0 constants (a,b,c)
t

𝑥 𝑦
ex. two intercept ; x = 1 , y = 2 ; 2( 1 + = 1) ; 2x + y = z
2
ex. l1: y = 2x + 7 , l2: y = -x + 1 ; m = 2 ≄ m = -1 ; intersecting ;
ex. point slope ; “what is the equation in point-slope form
b = 7 , b = 1 ; consistent & independent ; 1 solution
of a line that passes through the point (4,10) and has a 2𝑦 −3𝑥+6
ex. l1: 3x + 2y = 6 , l2: 6x + 4y = 12 ; 2y = -3x + 6 ; =
slope of 3?” ; y - (-10) = 3(x-4) ; y + 10 = 3(x-4)
2 2
−3 −3 4𝑦 −6𝑥+12
;y= 𝑥 + 3 ;m= , b = 3 ; 4y = -6x + 12 ; =
● finding slope given two points 2 2 4 4
−3 −3
𝑦2−𝑦1 ;y= 𝑥+3;m= , b = 3 ; coinciding ; consistent &
m= 𝑥2−𝑥1
2 2

𝑦2−𝑦1 dependent ; infinite solution

ex. two points ; m = 𝑥2−𝑥1
; “what is the slope of a line that
2−0
● line passing through the origin
passes through the origin and the point (1,2)?” ; m = ;
1−0
if a line passes through the origin, then there are no
2
;2
1 constants in the linear equation
● finding slope given an equation of a line ● y-intercept given slope-intercept form of a line
if the graph is in slope-intercept form, the slope is the the y-intercept in a slope-intercept form y = mx + b is (0,b)
coefficient of ‘x’ ex. y = -3x + 2 ; (0,2)
if not, transform the equation first into slope-intercept ● slope of a perpendicular line
form and theslope is the coefficient of ‘x’ 1
a perpendicular line has a slope of - 𝑚 of the other line
ex. “what is the slope of the line 2y - 6x = 3?” ; y = mx + b ;
ex. “if the slope of line ‘a’ is -5, then what is the slope of
2𝑦 6𝑥+3 3𝑥+3
2y = 6x + 3 ; = ;y= ; slope is 3 1 1
2 2 2 line ‘b’ if it is perpendicular to line a?” ; - −5 ; 5
● system of linear equation
● equation of the perpendicular line
a set of two or more linear equation that have common
find the slope of the given line
variables 1
compute for - 𝑚
in solving, check first if it is easier to
1 1
use (- 𝑚 ) and (a,b) in point-slope form ; y - b = - 𝑚 (x-a)
add/subtract/multiply/divide two of the equations
ex. “what is the equation of the line whose graph is
ex. 4x - y = 2 , 10x - 3y = 4 ; (1,2) ; 4(1) - (2) = 2 ; 4 - 2 = 2 ; 2 =
1
2 ; 10(1) - 3(2) = 4 ; 10 - 6 = 4 ; 4 = 4 ; “therefore (1,2) is a perpendicular to the graph of the line y = - 2 x + 3 and
1
solution of the sle)” passes through point (0,2)?” ; negative reciprocal of - 2 ; 2 ;
● kinds of graph y - 2 = 2x
coinciding - blue & red ● equation of the parallel line
intersecting - purple & green find the slope of the given line
parallel - black & orange use m and (a,b) in point-slope form ; y - b = m(x-a)

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ex. “what is the equation of the line whose graph is function, what is the value of c?” ;
parallel to the graph of the line 2y - 3x = 3 and passes
2𝑦 3𝑥+3
through point (1,2)?” ; isolate y ; 2y = 3x + 3 ; 2
= 2
;y ; f(x) increases by 3 constantly ; their
3𝑥+3 3 3 3 3
= 2
or 2
𝑥+ 2
;m= 2
;y-2= 2
(x-1) corresponding values must also increase/decrease
● classifying systems constantly ; 18 - c = c - 10 ; 2c = 28 ; c = 4

single solution 𝑎1
≠
𝑏1
consistent
𝑎2 𝑏2
when.. independent

infinite solution 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
consistent
K. Functions and Relations
𝑎2
= 𝑏2
= 𝑐2
when.. dependent
● relations
a rule that associates the elements of one set of values to
no solutions 𝑎1
=
𝑏1
≠
𝑐1
inconsistent
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
when.. another set of values
domain - input ; x
● solving system of linear equations with a same
range - outputs ; y
term
● ways of representing relations
subtracting the two equations eliminates the identical
term arrow diagram 4→3
-2 → -1
ex. x = ? , y = ? ; 3x = y + 10 , 3x = 2y - 10 ; (3x = y + 10) - (3x =
-3 → 2
2y - 10) ; 0 = -y + 20 ; y = 20 ; substitute y to get x ; 3x = y +
2 → -4
10 ; 3x = 20 + 10 ; 3x = 30 ;
0 → -4
3x3=303 ; x = 10 ; (10,20)
● solving system of linear equations with different set of ordered pairs {(2,4) , (3,9) , (4,16)}

terms
table
make one of the terms the same with the other by
multiplying a term for both sides of an equation x y

ex. x =? , z = ? ; 2x = z + 3 , 4x = 3z + 6 ; (2x = z + 3)(2) ; (4x =

1 6
3z + 6) - (4x = 2z + 6) ; 0 = -z ; z = 0 ; 4x = 3(0) + 6 ; 4x = 6 ;
4𝑥
=
6
;x=
3 3
; ( 2 ,0) -3 2
4 4 2

● analytical methods
5 0
substitution method substitute a y-int line to the
other line -1 -5

substitute x = a to solve for y

elimination method standard form both equations graph

eliminate x
eliminate y

ex. l1: x + y = 3 , l2: y = x - 1 ; x + (x-1) = 3 ; 2x - 1 = 3 ; 2x = 3 + equation y=x

2
2𝑥 4 y = 7x + 5x + 3
1 ; 2x = 4 ; 2
= 2
; x = 2 ; y = 2 - 1 ; y = 1 ; (2,1)
ex. 2x + 5y = 20 , x + y = 7 ; eliminate x ; 2x + 5y = 20 ;
(x+y=7)(-2) ; (2x+5y=20) + (-2x-2y=-14) ; 3y = 6 ;
3𝑦
=
6
;y= ● types of relations
3 3

2 ; eliminate y ; 2x + 5y = 20 ; (x+y=7)(-5) ; (2x+5y=20) + one-to-one each element in

(-5x-5y=-35) ; -3x = -15 ;
−3𝑥
−3
=
−15
−3
; x = 5 ; (5,2) d has only one
● determining if a point (a,b) lies on a graph corresponding
element in r
substitue ‘a’ to x and ‘b’ to y
ex. y = 2x - 1 ; (3,5) ; 5 = 2(3) - 1 ; 5 = 6 - 1 ; 5 = 5
if the equation holds, then the point lies on the graph
● given a point (x,y) and f(x) = x + n , find ‘n’ one-to-many an element in d
substitute the value of x and y and solve for n has several
● given table of linear function corresponding
elements in r
the difference of the y values are the same if and only if
the difference of their corresponding x values are the
same
ex. “the following table represents some values of a linear

14
 MATHEMATICS REVIEWER
jan - mar 2023

many-to-one several elements

in d have one or
the same
corresponding
element in r
ex.
f(x) = f(-2) ; x-coordinate = -2 ; corresponding y-coordinate
● function = 11 ; f(-2) = 11
a relation in which each input is paired with exactly one ● operations on functions
output addition (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
one-to-one
many-to-one subtraction (f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

● algebraic vs transcendental functions

multiplication (fxg)(x) = f(x) x g(x)
algebraic transcendental
division 𝑓
( 𝑔 )(x) =
𝑓(𝑥)
where g(x) ≄ 0
𝑔(𝑥)
polynomial exponential
rational logarithmic
2 2
radical trigonometric ex. f(x) = x + 5x + 4 ; g(x) = x - 3x - 9 ; (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) ;
2 2 2
(x +5x+4) + (x -3x-9) ; (f+g)(x) = 2x + 2x - 5
2 2
ex. (f+g)(2) = 2x + 2x - 5 ; (f+g)(2) = 2(2) + 2(2) - 5 ; (f+g)(2) = 8
● vertical line test
+ 4 - 5 ; (f+g)(2) = 7
a graph is a function if no vertical line passes through two 2 2 2
ex. f(x) = x + 5x + 4 ; g(x) = x - 3x - 9 ; (f-g)(x) = (x +5x+4) -
or more points 2 2 2
(x -3x-9) ; (f-g)(x) = x + 5x + 4 - x + 3x + 9 ; (f-g)(x) = 8x + 13
ex. 2
ex. f(x) = 2x ; h(x) = x - 2 ; g(x) = x + 7 ; (fxg)(x) = f(x) x g(x) ;
2 3 2
(fxg)(x) = (2x ) x (x+7) ; 2x + 14x
2
ex. f(x) = 2x ; h(x) = x - 2 ; g(x) = x + 7 ; (hxg)(x) = h(x) x g(x) ;
2
(hxg)(x) = (x-2) x (x+7) ; (hxg)(x) = x + 7x - 2x - 14 ; (hxg)(x) =
2
x + 5x - 14
2 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓
ex. f(x) = x + 3x + 2 ; g(x) = x + 2 ; ( 𝑔 )(x) = 𝑔(𝑥)
; ( 𝑔 )(x) =
2
𝑥 +3𝑥+2
𝑥+2
;(
𝑓 (𝑥+2)(𝑥+1) 𝑓
𝑔
)(x) = 𝑥+2
; ( 𝑔 )(x) = x + 1
● composition of functions
if f & g are functions, then the composite function of f & g
● horizontal line test is
a graph is one-to-one if no horizontal line passes through (f◦g)(x) = f(g(x))
two or more points on the graph (outer function◦inner function)(x) = (substitute g(x) to the x
ex. in f(x))
“f composition g of x is equal to f of g of x
ex. f(x) = x - 3 ; g(x) = 2x + 5 ; (f◦g)(x) = f(g(x)) ; (f◦g)(x) = f(2x+5)
; f(2x+5) = (2x+5) - 3 ; (f◦g)(x) = 2x + 2
ex. f(x) = x - 3 ; g(x) = 2x + 5 ; (g◦f)(x) = g(f(x)) ; (g◦f)(x) = g(x-3) ;
g(x-3) = 2(x-3) + 5 ; (g◦f)(x) = 2x - 6 + 5 ; (g◦f)(x) = 2x - 1
ex. a(x) = 3x - 10 ; (a◦a)(3) = a(a(3)) ; a(3) = 3(3) - 10 ; a(3) = 9 -
10 ; a(3) = -1 ; a(-1) = 3(-1) - 10 ; (a◦a)(3) = -3 - 10 ; (a◦a)(3) =
-13
● special types of functions
graph ; find x , determine corresponding y
● evaluating functions per equation
equation ; if x is _ z ; then equation is _
y = 2x + 3 ; (x,y)
f(x) = 2x + 3 ; (x,f(x) piecewise two or more specified domain:
equations over a f(x) = {x+1 , x<-2}
ex. f(x) = f(5) ; f(x) = 2x + 3 ; f(5) = 2(5) + 3 ; f(5) = 10 + 3 ; f(5) =
2
specified domain f(x) = {x -1 , x≥-2} ;
13
2 2
quadratic function
ex. k(x) = k(a+1) ; k(x) = x + 4x ; k(a+1) = (a+1) + 4(a+1) ; 2
[f(x) = x -1] ;
2 2
k(a+1) = a + 2a + 1 + 4a + 4 ; k(a+1) = a + 6a + 5
parabola
● evaluating functions per graph

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 MATHEMATICS REVIEWER
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2
8 2𝑥 2
graphing ; 2
= 2
; 4 = x ; x ± 2 ; (-2,0) , (2,0)
> , < - hole ● inverse of a function
≤ , ≥ - shaded convert all x to y and all y to x
then solve for y in terms of x
absolute value contains an f(x) = {-x , x<0}
note that y = f(x)
absolute value f(x) = {x , x≥0} ; f(x)
symbol [f(x) = |x|] = |x| , x ϵ R ; ex. “what is the inverse of the function f(x) = 2x + 3 ; x = 2y
2𝑦 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥−3
; domain is the set graphing ; + 3 ; 2y + 3 = x ; 2y = x - 3 ; 2
= 2
;y= 2
; f(x) = 2
of real numbers [x
ϵ R]
L. Graph of a Function*

step/greatest equal to the f(x) = {-3 , -3≤x<-2} ● ‘c rule’ of cartesian plane quadrants
integer largest integer f(x) = {-2 , -2≤x<-1} draw a letter c starting from the upper-right portion
that is ≤ 𝑥 [f(x) = f(x) = {-1 , -1≤x<0}
the path covered as you trace c would be the sequential
[x]]; rounds down a f(x) = {0 , 0≤x<1}
order of quadrants
real number to the f(x) = {1 , 1≤x<2}
quadrant I (+,+)
nearest integer ; f(x) = {2 , 2≤x<3}
int → int itself , f(x) = {3 , 3≤x<4} quadrant II (-,+)
decimal → int on f(x) = {4 , 4≤x<5} ; quadrant III (-,-)
left infinite ; graphing quadrant IV(+,-)
; ● reflections of a point

● reflections of a function
2
ex. f(-4) = ?? ; f(x) = {x+1 , x<-2} f(x) = {x -1 , x≥-2} ; f(x) = x + 1
; f(-4) = -4 + 1 ; -3
2 2
ex. f(5) = ?? ; f(x) = {x+1 , x<-2} f(x) = {x -1 , x≥-2} ; f(x) = x - 1
2
; f(5) = 5 - 1 ; 25 - 1 ; 24
ex. f(x) = |x-2| ; f(-4) = ?? ; f(-4) = |-4-2| = |-6| ; 6 ● reflection ; -f(x)

ex. f(x) = -2 |x+1| + 5 ; f(0) = ?? ; f(0) = -2 |0+1| + 5 ; -2 |1| + 5 ; -f(x) is a reflection of f(x) along the x-axis

-2(1) + 5 ; -2 + 5 ; 3
ex. f(x) = [x] ; f(-3) = ?? ; f(-3) = [-3] ; -3
ex. f(x) = [x+3] ; f(-4.1) = ?? ; f(4.1) = [4.1+3] ; -1.1 ; -2
● (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) ● reflection ; f(-x)
2
ex. f(x) = x , g(x) = 2x - 3 ; (f+g)(x) = ?? ; (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) ; f(-x) is a reflection of f(x) along the y-axis
2 2
(x ) + (2x - 3) ; x + 2x - 3
● (f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
2 2
ex. f(x) = x , g(x) = 2x - 3 ; (f-g)(x) = ?? ; (f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) ; (x
2
) - (2x - 3) ; x - 2x - 3
● (fg)(x) = f(x) x g(x)
2 2
ex. f(x) = x , g(x) = 2x - 3 ; (fg)(x) = ?? ; (fg)(x) = f(x) x g(x) ; (x M. Polynomial Function
3 2
)(2x - 3) ; 2x - 3x
● polynomial function
● (f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)
n n-1 2
2 p(x) is a function of the form p(x) = anx + an-1x + … + a2x +
ex. f(x) = x , g(x) = 2x - 3 ; (f/g)(x) = ?? ; (f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x) ;
𝑥
2 a1x + a0
2𝑥−3 exponents are whole numbers ; zero and positive integers
● in a function, x is arbitrary
coefficients ; an , an-1 , … , a2 , a1 , a0 ; are real numbers
x can be any number/variable or combination of both
domain are always the set of all real numbers
2 2
ex. if f(x) = x + x + 1 ; find f(g+1) ; f(g+1) = (g+1) + (g+1) + 1 3 2 2 5 2
ex. f(x) = 4x + 5x - x + 7 , p(x) = 2x - 3 5𝑥 , l(x) = 2.3x + x -
● x and y intercepts
x
to get x-intercepts ; set y equal to zero and solve for x
● basic terms
to get y-interecepts ; set x equal to zero and solve for y n n-1 2
2
p(x) = anx + an-1x + … + a2x + a1x + a0
ex. find the x and y intercepts of f(x) = 2x - 8 ; y-intercept ;
2 2 2
n - degree ; highest power of the variable
y = 2(0) - 8 ; y = -8 ; (0,-8) ; x-intercept ; 0 = 2x - 8 ; 8 = 2x ; n
anx - leading term ; contains the degree

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an - leading coefficient ; numerical coefficient in the
leading term
a0 - constant term ; numerical term or fixed value
● types of polynomial functions
f(x) = 0 is a zero polynomial function
step 6 repeat
a polynomial function is in general form if its terms are in
descending order of variable powers

degree type general form

0 constant f(x) = a0

1 linear f(x) = a1x + a0

step 7 use the 3rd row values to write the quotient,
2
2 quadratic f(x) = a2x + a1x + a0
remainder ; the degree of the quotient is one less

3 2
than the degree of the dividend
3 cubic f(x) = a3x + a2x +
a1x + a0

4 3
4 quartic f(x) = a4x + a3x +
2
a2x + a1x + a0

3 2 3 2
ex. f(x) = 4x + x - x + 7 ; general form , f(x) = x - x + 4x + 7 ;
3
degree , 3 ; leading term , x ; leading coefficient , 1
2 2
𝑥 𝑥
ex. p(x) = x - 11 + 4
; general form , p(x) = 4
+ x - 11 ;

degree , 2 ; leading coefficient ,

1
; constant term , -11 step 8 do the checking ; final answer must be in simplest
4
form
● dividing polynomials
factoring ; long division ; synthetic division
● synthetic division ; (ax-c) where a = 1
can be used to divide a polynomial by a linear divisor (x-c)
3 2
ex. (3x +4x -5x+2) / (x-2)

step 1 write the polynomial dividend in general form ;

insert a zero coefficient for any missing term

3 2
3x + 4x - 5x + 2
if the polynomial dividend has degree n ; the number of its
step 2 equate the linear divisor to 0 ; solve for x coefficients must be n + 1
the degree of the quotient is one less than the degree of
x-2=0;x=2
the dividend
step 3 write the coefficients of the dividend in the first the terms of the quotient must be written in descending
row powers of the variable
if a coefficient here is 0, there is no need to write that
term in the final answer
if you’re asked to give only the quotient, consider the
terms without the remainder only
the degree of the quotiet is one less than the degree of the
step 4 bring down the leading coefficient in the 3rd row ;
dividend
multiply this value to the value obtained and put
● synthetic division ; (ax-c) where a ≠ 1
the product in the next column of the 2nd row
just make an adjustment before writing the coefficients of
the polynomial quotient
divide the entries in the 3rd row (except the remainder) by
the value of a in ax - c
4 3
ex. (3x +7x -10x+10) / (3x-2)
step 5 add the value in the new column ; write the sum in
the 3rd row

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● theorems
a polynomial can be expressed as (quotient)(divisor) +
remainder
if
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑥−𝑐
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟 ; p(x) = q(x)(x-c) + r ● rational roots theorem
● remainder theorem a root or zero of a function is a number that when plugged
a remainder of a polynomial p(c) that is divided by (x-c) is in for the variable, makes the function equal to zero
p(c) the roots of a polynomial are values of x such that p(x) = 0
p(c) = r if x - c is a factor of p(x) ; c must be a zero of p(x)
3 2
ex. “find the remainder if p(x) = x + x - x - 1 is divided by that is, if p(c) = 0 ; c is a zero of p(x)
3 2
(x-2) ; p(2) = 2 + 2 - 2 - 1 ; 8 + 4 - 2 - 1 ; 9 4 2
ex. h(x) = x - 15x + 10x + 24 ; factors of h(x) , (x+1) , (x-2) ,
3 2 3 2
ex. [p(x) = x -5x +3x-2] / (x-1) ; x - 1 = 0 , x = 1 ; p(1) = 1 - 5(1) (x-3), (x+4) ; roots or zeroes of h(x) , -1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ; h(x) is a
+ 3(1) - 2 ; 1 - 5 + 3 - 2 ; -3 degree of 4 (4 zeroes)
● remainder of zero given a function where ;
if [p(x)] / (x-c) , remainder = 0 ; (x-c) is a factor of p(x) p - factor of the constant term
● factor theorem q - factor of the leading coefficient
a polynomial p(x) has a factor of x - c if and only if p(c) = 0 ; the possible rational roots of the function are of the form
vice versa 𝑝
𝑞
3 2
ex. “determine if (x-1) is a factor of x + x - x - 1 ; ex. “find all the possible rational roots of p(x) = x - x + 4 ;
4 2

3 2
substitute 1 to x ; 1 + 1 - 1 - 1 ; 1 + 1 - 1 - 1 ; 0 ; (x+1) is a p = 1 , 2 , 4, -1 , -2 , -4 ; q = 1 , -1 ;
3 2
factor of x + x - x - 1 𝑝 1 1 2 2 4 4 −1 −1 −2 −2
𝑞
= 1
, −1
, 1
, −1
, 1
, −1
, 1
, −1
, 1
, −1
,
3 2
ex. “is (x-3) a factor of f(x) = 3x - 9x - 12x + 36 ; x - 3 = 0 , x −4 −4 𝑝
3 2
, ; simplify ; = 1 , -1 , 2 , -2 , 4 , -4 ; 6 possible
= 3 ; f(3) = 3(3) - 9(3) - 12(3) + 36 ; 3(27) - 9(9) - 36 + 36 ; 81 - 1 −1 𝑞

rational roots of p(x) ; ± 1 , ± 2 , ± 4

81 - 36 + 36 ; f(3) = 0 ; x - 3 is a factor of f(x)
● how to get the zeroes of a function?
if there is missing value, equate everything to 0
use the rational roots theorem to find all possible rational
● polynomial forms
roots of the function
a polynomial can be written in expanded or factored form
use synthetic division to evaluate a possible zero by
expanded form if it is written as sums and synthetically dividing the candidate into the polynomial ;
differences of terms
if the remainder is zero , then the candidate is a zero ; if

factored form if it is written as a product of

the remainder is not zero , disregard

its factors ; a polynomial may repeat step 2 using the quotient ; continue until all roots
have identical factors are found
3 2
ex. “find all the roots of a(x) = x - 4x + x + 6” ; possible
complete factored form if none of its factors can be 𝑝
rational zeroes , = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6
further factored 𝑞

a product of all factors in the factored form is equal to the

expanded form
● to find the other factor
use synthetic division
4 2
ex. h(x) = x - 15x + 10x + 4 ; factors = (x+1) , (x-2) , (x+4)

4 2
ex. b(x) = x - 6x - 8x - 3 ; p = ± 1 , ± 3 ; q = ± 1

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lifting one’s pen
ex.

● required properties when graphing polynomial

functions
end behavior
turning points
;
y-intercept
we have two remaining roots to solve for since the degree
zeroes and their multiplicities
2
of b(x) is 4 ; the remaining coefficients can be written as x
● end behavior
2
+ 2x + 1 = 0 which is (x+1) = 0 ; the other two roots are -1
up , up
and +1 ; the roots or zeroes of b(x) are 3 and -1 of
degree - even
multiplicity 3 ; verifiy ;
lead. coeff. -
positive
ex. f(x) = 3x2 - 3 ,
f(x) = -3x2 + 2x8

down , down
degree - even
lead. coeff. -
2 negative
ex. f(x) = 3x , f(x) =
2 4
5 4 3 2 -3x - 2x
ex. “completely factor out h(x) = 2x + 8x - 2x - 8x ” ;
2
sometimes, terms have common factors ; h(x) has 2x as a down , up
2 2 3 2 2
common factor ; factor out 2x ; h(x) = 2x (x +4x -x-4) ; 2x / degree - odd
5 4 3 2 2 3 2 3
2x + 8x - 2x - 8x ; 2x (x + 4x - x - 4) ; get the factor of x lead. coeff. -
2
+ 4x - x - 4 ; p = ± 1 , ± 2 , ± 4 ; q = ± 1 ; verify ; 3
positive
ex. f(x) = 3x - 3 ,
2 3
f(x) = -3x + 2x

up , down
degree - odd
lead. coeff. -
negative
; the roots of ex. f(x) = -3x , f(x) =
3 2 2 5
x + 4x - x - 4 are 1 , -1 , 4 ; (x-1) , (x+2) , (x-4) ; substitute to -3x - 2x
2 3 2
h(x) ; h(x) = 2x (x +4x -x-4) ; complete factored form of h(x) ;
2
2x (x-1)(x+1)(x-4) ; get the zeroes ; h(x) = (2x)(x)(x-1)(x+1)(x-4)
● turning point
; apply the zero product property ;
a point at which the graph changes from increasing to
decreasing behavior ; vice versa
● y-intercept
the point where the graph of the function intersects the
; the zeroes of h(x) are 0 of multiplicity 2 , 1 , -1 , 4 y-axis or the vertical axis
● graphs of polynomial functions ● zeroes and their multiplicities
degree 0 & 1 - lines roots or x-intercepts
degree 2 - parabolas the point where the graph of the function intersects the
degree 3 - ?? x-axis or the horizontal axis
3
ex. h(x) = x - 5x + 6x - 1
2
● how the multiplicity affects the graph

smooth - contain only round curves ; no sharp corners

continuous - no breaks, gaps, holes ; can be drawn without
● zeroes and multiplicity

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given a polynomial function with r as a zero ;
; x = 3 mult. 4
r is a zero of odd multiplicity - graph crosses the x-axis at 5 mult.2 , -4 mult. 3 , 3 mult. 4
(r,0) factor out if terms are simplified first before equating to zero
r is a zero of even multiplicity - graph touches tha x-axis
and turns around at (r,0)
● odd multiplicity
3
ex. b(x) = (x-1) ; zeroes , -1 mult. 3 ; f(x) = (x-1) ; zeroes , -1
7
N. Linear Function *refer to linear
5
mult. 7 ; d(x) = (x-1) ; zeroes, -1 mult. 5 equation*
“1 is a zero of odd multiplicity”
● linear function
the graph simply crosses the x-axis at (1,0) ; identical
function in which the graph of the solutions form a
graph ;
straight line
slope intercept form ; y = mx + b

O. Quadratic Equation & Function

● even multiplicity ● quadratic equations

2 6
ex. a(x) = (x-1) ; zeroes , -1 mult. 2 ; e(x) = (x-1) ; zeroes , -1 equation of the second degree
4 2
mult. 6 ; c(x) = (x-1) ; zeroes , -1 mult. 4 standard form ; ax + bx + c = 0 ; a ≠ 0
“1 is a zero of even multiplicity” has two solutions
2 2
the graph touch the x-axis and turn around at (1,0) ; ex. 36 = x , 2x - 5x + 2 = 0
identical graph ; ● solving quadratic equations (square root method)
2
x = ± 𝑐 ; x = c ; c is a real number
useful when the quadratic and constant terms are present
2 2
ax + c = 0 ; ax = quadratic term ; c = constant term
2 2
ex. x = 81 ; 𝑥 = 81 ; x = ± 9 ; ss: {± 9}
● properties of a graph of a polynomial function
2
2 2 2 8𝑥 30 2 30
ex. 8x - 12 = 18 ; 8x = 18 + 12 ; 8x = 30 ; 8
= 8
;x = 8

2 15 2 15 15 15
;x = 4
; 𝑥 = 4
;x=± 2
; ss: {± 2
}
2 2
ex. x = -100 ; 𝑥 = − 100 ; x = ± − 100 ; x = nonreal ;
ss: { }

end behavior odd-degree polynomials ends with opposite

directions
even-degree polynomials ends with similar
directions

6 5
ex. f(x) = 5x + 4x - 3x + 2
degree , even (6) ; lead. coeff. , + (5) ; end behavior , up up ● solving quadratic equations (factoring)
zero product theorem
turning point a polynomial function of degree n has at ab = 0 ; a = 0 ; b = 0
most n - 1 turning points
the product of two numbers is zero if and only if either of
6
ex. f(x) = 5x + 4x - 3x + 2
5
them is zero
2
degree , 6 ; 6 - 1 = 5 ex. x + 8x + 12 = 0 ; (x+6)(x+2) = 0 ; x + 6 = 0 , x + 2 = 0 ; x = -6
, x - 2 ; ss:{-6,-2}
y-intercept the value of the function when x = 0 2
ex. x + 100x = 0 ; x(x+100) = 0 ; x = 0 , x + 100 = 0 ; x = 0 , x =
6
ex. f(x) = 5x + 4x - 3x + 2
5 -100 ; ss:{0,-100}
2 2
6 5
f(0) = 5(0) + 4(0) - 3(0) + 2 ; 0 + 0 - 0 + 2 = 2 ex. x + 4x + 4 = 0 ; (x+2) = 0 ; x + 2 = 0 , x + 2 = 0 ; x = -2 , x =
-2 ; ss:{-2 multiplicity of 2} (double root)
zeroes and the value of the function when y or f(x) = 0
their
multiplicites

2 3 4
ex. a(x) = (x-5) (x+4) (3-x)
2 3 4 2 3
0 = (x-5) (x+4) (3-x) ; (x-5) = 0 ; x - 5 = 0 ; x = 5 mult. 2 ; (x+4) = 0
4 −𝑥 −3
; x + 4 = 0 ; x = -4 mult. 3 ; (3-x) = 0 ; 3 - x = 0 ; -x = -3 ; −1
= −1

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● solving quadratic equations (completing the 2
b - 4ac (ps) (not ps)
square)

● discriminant
𝑎
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐 2
x= 2𝑎
; b - 4ac
the value of the discriminant can be used to determine the
nature of roots of a quadratic equation

discriminant nature of roots

2
technique ; c (additional constant) = ( 2𝑎 )
𝑏 2 b - 4ac < 0 nonreal ; none
2 2 2 2
ex. x - 6x - 3 = 0 ; x - 6x = 3 ; -6 / 2 = -3 , (-3) = 9 ; x - 6x + 9 2
b - 4ac = 0 real, rational, equal ; double
2 2
= 3 + 9 ; (x-3) = 12 ; (𝑥 − 3) =± 12 ; x - 3 = ± 2 3 ; x = root ; one

3 ± 2 3 ; ss:{3± 2 3} 2
b - 4ac > 0 and a perfect real, rational, unequal ; two
2 2 2
ex. x - 10x + 24 = 0 ; x - 10x = -24 ; (-10)/2 = -5 , (-5) = 25 ;
square
2 2 2
x - 10x + 25 = -24 + 25 ; (x-5) = 1 ; (𝑥 − 5) =± 1 ; x - 5
2
b - 4ac > 0 and not a perfect real, irrational, unequal ; two
= ± 1 ; x = 5 ± 1 ; x = 5 + 1 , x = 5 - 1 ; x = 6 , x = 4 ; ss:{6,4}
square
● solving quadrating equations (quadratic formula)
2
derivation of quadratic formula ; ax + bx + c = 0 ; solve for
2 𝑏 𝑐 2
x by completing the square ; x + 𝑎
𝑥 + 𝑎
=0 ; x +
2 2
𝑏 𝑐 2 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 2
𝑎
𝑥 =− 𝑎
; x + 𝑎
𝑥 + 2 = 2 − 𝑎
; x +
4𝑎 4𝑎
2 2 2 2
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 2 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑎
𝑥 + 2 = 2 ; (x+ 2𝑎 ) = 2 ;x+ 2𝑎
= 2𝑎
;
4𝑎 4𝑎 4𝑎
𝑎
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
quadratic formula ; x = 2𝑎
solve for the discriminant and determine the nature of
roots
2
ex. x + 4x - 21 = 0 ; a = 1 , b = 4 , c = -21 ; 4 - 4(1)(-21) ; 16 +
84 ; 100 ; real, rational, unequal
2 2 2
ex. 2x + 9 = 1 ; 2x + 9 - 1 = 0 ; 2x + 8 = 0 ; a = 2 , b = 0 ; c = 8
2
; 0 - 4(2)(8) ; 0 - 64 ; - 64 ; nonreal
● solving equations transformable to quadratic
2 equations (radical equations)
ex. 2x - 9x + 4 = 0 ; a = 2 , b = -9 , c = 4 ; substitute ; x =
𝑎
radical equation - cotains radical expressions
9± (−9) −4(2)(4) 9± 49 9±7 9+7 9−7 1
;x= ; x= ; = 4, = ;
2(2) 4 4 4 4 2 ex. 𝑥 = 5
1 1
x=4,x= 2
; ss:{ 2 ,4} e and f = algebraic expressions ; e = f , algebraic equation ;
2
ex. 3x + 2x - 2 = 0 ; a = 3 , b = 2 , c = -2 ; substitute ; x = solution set is a subset of the solution set of the equation ;
n n
e = f ; n = positive integer
𝑎
−2± (2) −4(3)(−2) −2± 28 −2±2 7 −1± 7
2(3)
;x= 6
;x= 6
; x= 3
; ss:{
−1± 7
3
}
● nature of roots
2 2 2 2
given 2x + x + 3 x + 6x + 9 x + 7x + x - 5x + 2
=0 =0 10 = 0 =0

roots no -3 mult. -2 , -5 5± 17
2
solution of 2
2 2
ex. 𝑥 = 8 ; ( 𝑥) = 8 ; x = 64 ; {64}
character real real real
2 2
stic of nonreal rational rational irrational ex. 𝑥 + 3 − 4 = 0 ; ( 𝑥 + 3) = 4 ; x + 3 = 16 ; x = 16 - 3
roots equal unequal unequal ; x = 13 ; {13}
2 2 2 2 2 2
ex. 𝑥 − 8 = 4 ; ( 𝑥 − 8) = 4 ; x - 8 = 16 ; x = 24 ;
value of -23 0 9 17
2 2
b - 4ac 𝑥 = 24 ; x = ± 2 6 ; {± 2 6 }
● extraneous solution
descripti negative equal to positive positive
solution that emegerged during the solving, but not a valid
on of the or less zero or greater or greater
value of than zero than zero than zero
solution (upon checking)

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2
ex. 4 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8 = 24 ; divide both sides by 4 ; intercepts points of
2 2 2 2 2
intersection of the
𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8 = 6 ; ( 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8) = 6 ; x - 4x + 8 = 36
graph with x an y
2 2
; x - 4x + 8 - 36 = 0 ; x - 4x - 28 = 0 ; complete the square ;
axis
2 2 2
x - 4x + 4 = 28 + 4 ; (x-2) = 32 ; (𝑥 − 2) = 32 ; x - 2 =
± 4 2 ; x = 2± 4 2 ; {2± 4 2} ; check ;
2
4 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8 = 24 ;
2
4 (2 ± 4 2) − 4(2 ± 4 2) + 8 = 24 ; 4

4 ± 16 2 + 32 − 8 ± 16 2 + 8 = 24 ; 4 36 = 24 ; 24
= 24 ; not an extraneous solution
● quadratic function
domain & range domain - set of x
a polynomial function in the second degree
2 2 values ; d: {x|xϵ𝑅}
y = ax + bx + c ; f(x) = ax + bx + c
range - set of
a , b , c = real numbers ; a≠ 0
y-values ; concave
2
ex. f(x) = 5x up - r: {y|y≥ 𝑘} ;
● properties given the graph concave down - r:
{y|y≤ 𝑘} ; k =
concavity state of being
y-coordinate of
concave
the vertex
concave up -
upward parabola ;
concave down -
downward
parabola

● properties given the equation

2
concavity f(x) = ax + bs + c ; ex.
2
a > 0 - concave up ; f(x) = 2x - 5 ;
a < 0 - concave concave up
2
down f(x) = -x + 3x + 7 ;
vertex v: (h,k) concave down
the highest or
lowest point of the vertex (h,k) ; use formula ex.
2
parabola for h ; solve for f(h) f(x) = -x + 8x - 10 ;
concave up - h=−
𝑏
; k = f(h) h=−
8
;−
8
2𝑎 2(−1) −2
lowest point ; ; h = 4 ; k = f(4) ;
concave down - 2
f(4) = -(4) + 8(4) -
highest point 10 ; -16 + 32 - 10 ;
k = 6 ; (4,6)

line of symmetry x = h ; where h is ex.

the coordinate of v(3,9) ; x = 3
2
the vertex ; f(x) = -x + 8x - 10 ;
determine vertex (4,6) ; x = 4
first before h
line of symmetry vertical line
passing through
domain & range domain - set of all ex.
the vertex which 2
real numbers ; f(x) = -x + 8x - 10 ;
divides the
d: {x|xϵ𝑅} d:{x|xϵ𝑅} ; (4,6) ;
parabola into two
range ; r:{y|y≤ 6}
mirror images
{y|y≥ 𝑘} - a > 0
x=h
{y|y≤ 𝑘} - a < 0 ;
k = y-coordinate of
the vertex ;
determine the
vertex first before
k

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intercepts x intercept - let f(x) ex.

2
= 0 ; solve for x f(x) = x - 5x + 4 ;
y intercept ; let x = x-intercept ; let f(x)
2
0 ; solve for f(0) = 0 ; x - 5x + 4 = 0 ;
the y-intercept solve for x ;
always exsit ; the (x-1)(x-4) = 0 ; x = 1
x-intercept can be , x = 4 ; y-intercept
2
nonreal ; let x = 0 ; y = (0) -
; vertex = (1,-3) ; point (x,y) =
5(0) + 4 ; y = 4
(3,0)

step 2 solve for a by substituting h , k , x , y to a =

𝑦−𝑘
● standard and vertex form (𝑥−ℎ)
2

2
standard form ; f(x) = ax + bx + c 0+3 3
2 a= ;a=
vertex form ; f(x) = a(x-h) + k
2 4
(3−1)

(h,k) = vertex ; a ≠ 0 2
step 3 substitute a , h , k to f(x) = a(x-h) + k
2
ex. “determine the vertex of h(x) = (x+9) ; (-9,0)
● converting a quadratic function from standard to f(x) =
3
4
2
(x-1) - 3
vertex form

completing the square ex. ● sum of roots

2 2
f(x) = x - 6x + 5 ; f(x) = x - 6x + 2
ax + bx +c = 0 ; -b/a
2
9 + 5 - 9 ; f(x) = (x-3) - 4 ;
● product of roots
v(3,-4) 2
ax + bx +c = 0 ; c/a

using formulas ; ex.

2
h=−
𝑏
; k = f(h) f(x) = 2x - 4x + 5 ; a = 2 , b = -4
2𝑎
𝑏 −4
P. Rational Function
,c=5;h=− 2𝑎
;h=− 2(2)
;

−
−4
4
; f = 1 ; k = f(1) ; f(1) = ● rational function
2 𝑝(𝑥)
2(1) - 4(1) + 5 ; 2 - 4 + 5 ; k = 3 ; r(x) = ; polynomial ; q(x) ≠ 0 ; or else, undefined
𝑞(𝑥)
2
vertex form ; a(x-h) + k = 0 ; 𝑥+1
ex. r(x) = 2
2
f(x) = 2(x-1) + 3 𝑥 +8𝑥+12

● properties (asymptotes given the graph)

a line which is being approached but never intersected by
● converting a quadratic function from vertex to
the graph, when either x or y approach infinity
standard form
can be more than one vertical asympytote
2
expand (x-h)
only one horizonal asymptote
multiply it by ‘a’
curve may interset its horizontal asymptote but only the
2 2 2 2
ex. f(x) = 2(x-1) + 3 ; 2(x -2x+1) + 3 ; 2(x -2x+1) + 3 ; 2x - 4x +
middle graph
2
2 + 3 ; 2x - 4x + 5
it is possible for either the vertical asymptote or
● graphing quadratic function given the equation
horizontal asymptote to not exist
refer to the properties of the graph of the quadratic
equation of vertical line x=h
function given the equation
● determining the quadratic function given the equation of horizontal line y=k
graph
2
vertex method ; f(x) = a(x-h) + k
1
ex. r(x) = ; va , x = 0 ; ha , y = 0
determine the vertex ; (h,k) 𝑥

determing another point on the parabola ; (x,y)

solve for a by substituting the values of h , k , x , y on the
vertex form

step 1 identify the vertex and a point where the

graph passes through

curves approach but do not interset the dash lines or

asymptots
● properties (asymptotes given the equation - va)

step 1 factor the denominator and the numerator

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2 𝑥+2 factor
g(x) = 𝑥
; h(x) = 2
𝑥 +𝑥−2
equate the denominator to 0

step 2 cancel common factors solve for x

(𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)
ex. m(x) = (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)
; (x-2)(x+1) = 0 ; x - 2 = 0 , x = 2 ; x + 1 =
2 𝑥+2
g(x) = ; h(x) =
𝑥 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1) 0 , x = -1 ; {x|x≠− 1, 2}
● properties (intercepts given the graph}
step 3 equate the denominator to 0
x-intercept ; graph intersects the x-axis (h,0)
x=0;
1
𝑥−1
=0 y-intercept ; graph intersects the y-axis (0,k)
can be none for either and both
step 4 solve for x
● properties (intercepts given the equation)
x-intercept ; y = 0
x=0;x=1
factor
cancel
𝑥 2 2 2
ex. c(x) = 2 ; x + 1 = 0 ; x = -1 ; 𝑥 = − 1;x= − 1; let y = 0 (numerator)
𝑥 +1

no va (not real number) solve for x

(𝑥+!)(𝑥+2) 𝑥+2
2
x + k = 0 in the denominator would automatically mean ex. a(x) = (𝑥+!)(𝑥−1)
; 𝑥−1
; x + 2 = 0 ; x = -2
no va y-intercept ; x = 0
● properties (asymptotes given the equation - ha) let x = 0
solve for y
case 1 deg. of num. < deg. ha ; y = 0
(𝑥+!)(𝑥+2) (0+!)(0+2) (1)(2) 2
of den. ex. a(x) = (𝑥+!)(𝑥−1)
;y= (0+!)(0−1)
; (1)(−1)
; −1
; y = -2 or
(0,-2)
case 2 deg. of num. = deg. ha ; y =
● finding x in rational equations (cross product)
of den. 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑. 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚.
𝑎 𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑. 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛.
if 𝑏
= 𝑦
; then ay = bx

case 3 deg. of num. > deg. ha ; none combine all fractions in the left hand side into one
of den. fraction
do the same in the right hand side

1 use cross product

ex. f(x) = - 𝑥 ; 0 < 1 ; y = 0
1 3 1 𝑎(1)+8(3) 𝑎+24 1
2 ex. “solve for ‘a’ if 4
= 𝑎
+ 8
” ; 8𝑎
; 8𝑎
; 4
=
𝑥 −1
ex. f(x) = ; 2 > 1 ; none 𝑎+24 4𝑎 96
𝑥
7 8𝑎
; 8a = 4a + 96 ; 8a - 4a = 96 ; 4a = 96 ; 4
= 4
; a = 24
2𝑥 +3𝑥+5 2 1
ex. f(x) = 7 ;7=7; 4
;y= 2 ● finding x in rational equations (multiplying by
4𝑥 +3

● properties (domain and range given the graph) lcd)

domain - set of all possible values of the independent determine the lcd of all fractions
variable x ; horizontal multiple both sides of the equation by the lcd
range - set of all possible values of the dependent variable distribute and simplify ; eliminate all fractions
y ; vertical ex.
4
+
1
+
3
=
41
; 20x ( 5 +
4 1
+
3
=
41
) 20x ;
5 2 𝑥 20 2 𝑥 20
ex. ha , y = 1 ; va , x = -2 ; y ≠ 1 , x ≠ -2 ; domain , {x|x≠-2} ; 4(20𝑥) 1(20𝑥) 3(20𝑥) 41
5
+ 2
+ 𝑥
= ( 20 )(20𝑥) ; 4(4x) + 1(10x) + 3(20)
range , {y|y≠1}
= 41x ; 16x + 10x + 60 = 41x ; 60 = 41x - 16x - 10x ; 60 = 15x ;
x=4

Q. Inverse (& Exponential) Functions

● inverse functions
domain becomes range, vice versa
ex. ha , y = 0 ; va , x = -2 , x = 3 ; domain , {x|x≠-2,3} ; range ex. (0,6) , (-1,3) , (-2,0) ; (6,0) , (3,-1) , (0,-2)
, {y|yϵ𝑅} axis of reflection of the function and its inverse ; y = x

● properties (domain given the function)

the set of all real numbers except the x-values that make
one-to-one functions
the denominator 0

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two functions are inverses of each other if and only if in exponential decay ; as b decreases, the graph becomes
f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x steeper
-1
donated by f (x)
● solving for inverse

step 1 let f(x) = y

f(x) = 7x + 2 ; y = 7x + 2

step 2 solve for x

in exponential growth ; as b increases, the graph becomes
steeper
𝑦−2 7𝑥 𝑦−2
y = 7x + 2 ; 7
= 7
;x= 7

step 3 switch x & y variables

𝑦−2 𝑥−2
x= 7
;y= 7

● solving exponential equations

step 4 correct notation
uses laws of exponents
-1
f (x) =
𝑥−2 only applies to value next to exponent accept parenthesis
7
cases
a b a+b
product law x xx =x
● exponential functions
x
exponential function f with base b is f(x) = b power law
a b
(x ) = x
axb

b - a positive real number other than 1 ; x - any real

quotient law
𝑎
number 𝑥
𝑏 =x
a-b
𝑥
bϵ𝑅;b>0;b≠ 1;xϵ𝑅
one-to-one functions negative exponent law x =
-a 1
𝑎
𝑥
x
ex. d(x) = -8π ; b = π
0
zero exponent law x =1
π - 3.1415… ; e - 2.7182…
● two general trends of the graphs of exponential n n n
expanded power laws (axb) = a x b
functions 𝑎 n 𝑎
𝑛
(𝑏) = 2
exponential growth - increasing 𝑏

exponential decay - decreasing

5 2 5+2 7
● properties of exponential functions (decay) ex. 2 x 2 = 2 =2
case 1 ; 0 < b < 1 ; decay ; case 2 ; b > 1 ; growth
9
4 9-8
ex. 8 =4 =4
4
1 x x
ex. f(x) = ( ) ; f(x) = 2 7 3 7x3 21
2 ex. (6 ) = 6 =6
x x x x
1 x
y=(2) ;y=2
x ex. 8 x 5 = (8x5) = 40 (inverse)
0
ex. 9 = 1
x-intercept none ex. 2 =
-3 1
=
1
3 8
2
1 4
y-intercept (0,1) ex. −4 = x (inverse)
𝑥

● fractional exponents
horizonal asymptote y=0
𝑛 𝑚 m/n 1/n
𝑎 =a ; 𝑎=a
𝑛

vertical asymptote none 3 2 2/3

ex. 𝑥 =x
domain {x|x ϵ 𝑅} 5 4
ex. 8 𝑧 = 8(z ) ; 8z
4/5 4/5

1/2
ex. 𝑡 = t
range {y|y>0}
● one-to-one property of exponential functions
x y
trend decreasing ; increasing if b is a positive number other than 1 ; b = b ; if and only
if x = y
3 x+1
ex. 2 = 2 ;3=x+1;3-1=x;x=2
check if there is only 1 base on each side ; or else, combine
5 x-2 4x 5+x-2 4x x+3 4x
ex. (3 )(3 ) = 3 ; 3 =3 ;3 = 3 ; x + 3 = 4x ; 3 = 4x - x ;
3𝑥 3
3x = 3 ; 3
= 3
;x=1
check if bases are the same on both sides ; or else, rewrite
x 10 2 x 10 2x 10 2𝑥 10
● graph occurence ex. 4 = 2 ; (2 ) = 2 ; 2 = 2 ; 2x = 10 ; 2
= 2
;x=5

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ex.
1
=3
2x+5
;3
-1
=3
2x+5
; -1 = 2x + 5 ; -1 - 5 = 2x ; 2x = -6 ; functions
3
2𝑥
=
−6
; x = -3 graphs are symmetric along the line y = x
2 2
case 1 ; 0 < b < 1 ; ex. y = log1/2 x

R. Logarithms & Logarithmic Function

● logarithmic function
y = f(x) = logbx
“log base b of x” ; “log x base b” case 2 ; b > 1
x > 0 ; b > 0 ; b≠ 1
● evaluating logarithms
use calculators
ex. log2 32 ; “what exponent of 2 will give 32?” ; 5
ex. log16 4 ; ½ or 0.5

common log10 x = log x ex. log 1000 = 3 property case 1 case 2

logarithm ex. log (-1) =
undefined x-int (1,0)

natural logarithm loge x = ln x ex. ln 2 = 0.69 y-int none

ex. ln 0 =
undefined ha none

change of base base is changed ex. log5 125 = 3 ; va x = 0 (y-axis)

property from b to 10 ; 𝑙𝑜𝑔 125
=3
𝑙𝑜𝑔 5
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 domain {x|x>0}
logb x = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏
; 𝑙𝑛 𝑏 ; ex.
1
log3 9 = -2 ;
general form ; 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1/9
= -2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 range {y|yϵ𝑅}
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
logb x = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
;
a>0;a≠ 1 trend decreasing increasing

- logb b = 1 ex. log2 2 = 1

ex. ln e = 1 ● inverse properties
x logb x
logb b = x ; b =x
- logb 1 = 0 ex. log2 1 = 0 -1
logb x f(f (x)) = x ; f (f(x)) = x
-1

ex. ln 1 = 0
-1
determine f(f (x)) = x
x
inverse properties
x
logb b = x ; ex. log55 = 3
3
from b substitute f(logb x) = x
logb x = x
b
logb x
=x ex. ln e
1.2
= 1.2 perform composition b
log3 5
ex. 3 =5
-1
ex. e
ln 5
=5 determine f (f(x)) = x
-1 x
from logb x substitute f (b ) = x
logb x
perform composition b =
ex. converting logarithmic expressions to exponential x
form, vice versa
log2 16 = 4 , logarithmic ; “what exponent of 2 will give
4 ● applying laws of logarithms
16?” ; 2 = 16 , exponential
4 y
log2 16 = 4 ~ 2 = 16 ; logb x = y ~ b = x product law logb xy = logb x + logb y

y
logarithmic to exponential logb x = y ; b = x
quotient law logb
𝑥
= logb x - logb y
𝑦

x
exponential to logarithmic y = b ; x = logb y n
power law log bx = nlogb x

2
ex. log 100 = 2 ; 10 = 100
● expanding logarithms
0.5
ex. log5 (x+1) = 0.5 ; 5 =x+1
write it as sums or differences of logarithms using the
-2 1 1
ex. 10 = ; log10 = -2
100 100 laws of logarithms
4
ex. 10 = 1000 ; log10 1000 = 4 ex. “expand log3 2ab” ; product law ; log3 2ab = log3 2 + log3
● determining properties of logarithmic functions a + log3 b
x
given y = 2 ; inverse ; solve for x ; log2 y = x ; switch x and y 𝑥 𝑥
ex. “expand log2 5
” ; quotient law ; log2 5
= log2 x - log2 5
; log2 x = y 2 2 2
ex. “expand log4 (3x) ” ; product law ; log4 (3x) = log4 3 +
exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse 2
log4 x ; power law ; 2log4 3 + 2log4 x

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● condensing logarithms
write it as one logarithm using the laws of logarithms
ex. “condense “log3 x + log3 a” ; product law ; log3 x + log3 a
= log3 ax
ex. “condense 3log x + log 2 - 2log (x+3)” ; power law ; 3log
3 2
x + log 2 - 2log (x+3) = log x + log 2 - log (x+3) ; product
3
3 2 2𝑥
law ; log 2x - log (x+3) ; quotient law ; log 2
(𝑥+3)

● solving logarithmic equations

equations containing logarithmic equations S. Equations (definition focused) *topic
determine the value of x that will make the equation true
spread across other topics*
exponential form if possible
condense ● equations

solve for x a mathematical statement that is made up of two

check answer ; if greater than 0 ; correct expressions connected by an equal sign

ex. log3 (2x-1) = 2 ; exponential form ; 3 = 2x - 1 ; solve ; 9 =

2 ex. 3x – 5 = 16 ; solve ; get the value of the variable x ; x = 7
2𝑥 10 the LHS (left-hand side) and RHS (right-hand side) of an
2x - 1 ; 9 + 1 = 2x ; 2x = 10 ; 2
= 2
; x = 5 ; check answer ;
equation must be equal
(2x-1) , (2(5)-1) ; 10 - 1 ; 9 > 0 ; correct
● types of equations
● one-to-one property of logarithmic functions
logartihmic function is a one-to-one function linear equations y=mx+b

b>0;b=1
quadratic equations polynomial equation whose
logb x = logb y ; x = y
highest degree is two
2𝑥 4
ex. log5 2x = log5 4 ; 2x = 4 ; 2
= 2
; x = 2 ; checking ; 2x ,
2(2) ; 4 > 0 ; correct cubic equations can be represented in the
3 2
𝑥 form ax + bx + cx + d = 0 ;
ex. log3 x = log3 (x-3) = log3 4 ; condense ; (x-3)( 𝑥−3
= 4)(x-3) ;
where a , c , c , d are complex
3𝑥 12
x = 4(x-3) ; x = 4x - 12 ; 4x - x = 12 ; 3x = 12 ; 3
= 3
;x=4 numbers ; a is non-zero ;
1 1 2 1 2
ex. ln e 𝑥 − 1 = 3
; loge e 𝑥 − 1 = 3
; ( 𝑥 − 1) = ( 3
) ;x- always has 3 roots ; some of
1 1 9+1 10 which might be equal
1= 9
;x= 9
+1; 9
; 9
; x = 1.11
● applications of logarithms quartic equations polynomials that have a
comparting earthquake magnitudes using the richter scale degree of four ; solve quartic
ex. equations by setting it equal
to zero ; there will be four
complex (real and imaginary)
solutions — since it has a
degree of four — to every
quartic equation

differential equations equation that relates one or

more unknown functions and
their derivatives
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥)

parametic equations defines a group of quantities

as functions of one or more
independent variables called
parameters

T. Inequalities

● inequality
solve as if the sign is ‘=’ with switching the inequality sign
if you divide or times both sides by -1 or if you get the
reciprocal of both sides
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 3 3
ex. 3
≥ 1 ; (3)( 3
≥ 1)(3) ; 2a ≥ 3 ; 2
≥ 2
;a≥ 2

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● multiplying/dividing by a negative number in an ● solving with graphing
inequality
flip the inequality sign
−2𝑥 3 3
ex. -2x > 3 ; −2
> −2
;x<− 2

● reciprocal of an inequality
flips the inequality sign
13 𝑦 1 𝑦 1
ex. < 3; < ; < 2 2
𝑦 13 3 13 3 ex. x - 4x - 5 > 0 ; x - 4x - 5 = 0 ; (x-5)(x+1) = 0 ; x - 5 = 0 , x +
● given an inequality and an equation
1 = 0 ; x = 5 , x = -1 ; 5 and -1 are the critical points
substitute the equation to an inequality
ex. “if 2xy = 26 , x < 4 , what are the possible values of y?” ;
2𝑥𝑦 26 𝑥𝑦 13 13 13 𝑦 1
2
= 2
; xy = 13 ; 𝑦
= 𝑦
;x= 𝑦
; 𝑦
< 4; 13
> 4
;
4𝑦 13 13
4y > 13 ; 4
> 𝑦
;y> 𝑦

● ax + b < cy + d < ez + f
it acts like a normal equation
except if you add, subtract, multiply, divide, square, square
root one of the three expressions
the other two would also be changed
ex. “solve for x if 2 < 2x - 1 < 10” ; 2 + 1 < 2x < 10 + 1 ; 3 < 2x
3 11
< 11 ; 2
< 𝑥 < 2

● linear inequality
ax + b > 0 ; ax + b < 0 ; ax + b ≤ 0 ; ax + b ≥ 0
solve for x while treating the inequality sign as an equal
sign
in multiplying or dividing both sides by a negative
number, switch the inequality sign for the final answer
2𝑥 −1 1
ex. “find x if 2x + 1 < 0” ; 2x < -1 ; 2
< 2
;x>− 2

● solution of a linear inequality ex. -1 < x < 5

an ordered pair which satisfy the inequality when replaced ex. solution set: {x|x<-1∪ 𝑥 > 5}
by coodinates of the ordered pair ● solving without graphing
ex. 3x + y > 5 ; (-1,8) ; 3(-1) + 8 > 5 ; -3 + 8 > 5 ; 5 > 5 ; not a
solution

● quadratic inequalitiy
2 2 2 2
ax + b + c > 0 ; ax + b + c < 0 ; ax + b + c ≤ 0 ; ax + b + c ≥
0;a≠ 0
equate the expression to zero
find the two roots
answers can either be between or beyond the two roots 2 2
ex. x + 8x + 7 ≥ 0 ; x + 8x + 7 = 0 ; (x+7)(x+1) = 0 ; x + 7 = 0 ,
substitute one number between or beyond the roots to x + 1 = 0 ; x = -7 , x = -1 ; {x|x≤− 7 ∪ 𝑥 ≥− 1}
determine the intervals 2 2
ex. x ≤ 9𝑥 ; x - 9x ≤ 0 ; x(x-9) = 0 ; x = 0 , x - 9 = 0 ; x = 0 , x

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= 9 ; {x|0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}
● quadratic inequality (greater or less than)
2
greater than ax + bx + c > 0 ; ex.
2 2
answer is ; x + 5x > -4 ; x + 5x
2
x<r∪x>s; + 4 > 0 ; x + 5x + 4
r - smaller root ; = 0 ; (x+4)(x+1) = 0 ;
U. Absolute Value
beyond the two x+4=0,x+1=0;
roots x = -4 , x = -1 ; ● absolute value
{x|x<-4∪x>-1} distance of a number to zero

2
ex. |-5| = 5 , |3| = 3
less than ax + bx + c < 0 ; ex.
2 2
● |a-b| = |b-a|
answer is ; x <9;x -9<0;
|a-b| = |(-1)(b-a)| = |-1|x|b-a| = |b-a|
r<x<s; (x+3)(x-3) = 0 ; x + 3
r - smaller root ; =0,x-3=0;x= ● if |x| = |y|, then x = y and x = -y
between the two -3 , x = 3 ; ex. “if |x-2| = |2x+1|, what are the values of x?” ; x - 2 = 2x +
roots {x|-3<x<3| 1 and x - 2 = -(2x+1) ; x = -3 and x = ⅓
● if |x+1| = z, then x + 1 = z and x + 1 = -z
ex. “if |4x-9| = 19, what are the values of x?” ; 4x - 9 = 19
● polynomial inequality
5
has no variable in the denominator and 4x - 9 = -19 ; x = 7 and x = − 2

equate to zero ● if |x+1| > z, then x + 1 < -z and x + 1 > z

find all the roots ex. “solve for x if |x+1|>2” ; x + 1 < -2 and x + 1 > 2 ; x < -3

answers can be between any two consecutive roots or and x > 1

beyond the two end roots ● if |x+1|<z, then -z < (x+1) < z

substitute to check the intervals ex. “solve for x if |x+2|<2” ; -2 < (x+2) < 2 ; cancel out -2
from (x+2) ; -2 - 2 < (x+2) - 2 < 2 - 2 ; -4 < x < 0
x ≤ -2 x = -3
● representing a < x < b in a single inequality
𝑏+𝑎
-2 ≤ x ≤ 0 x = -1 if a < x < b, to represent x in a single inequality, use |x+ 2
𝑏−𝑎
|<
0≤x≤2 x=1 2

ex. “joshua spends between 8 and 14 hours a week on each

x≥2 x=3 of his assigned cases. if x represents the number of hours,
what inequality would best represent this range?” ; 8 < x <
3 14 ; |x-11| < 3
ex. “solve for x if x - 4x ≥ 0” ; x(x+2)(x-2) = 0 ; x = -2 , 0 , 2 ;
check if x ≤− 2 , -2 ≤ x ≤ 0 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 , x ≥ 2 are true ; if
3
x = -3 , (-3) - 4 (-3) ≥ 0 ; -27 + 12 ≥ 0 ; -15 ≥ 0 {false} ; if x = V. Radicals
3 3
-1 , (-1) - 4 (-1) ≥ 0 ; -1 + 4 ≥ 0 ; 3 ≥ 0 {true} ; if x = 1 , (1) - 4
3 ● etymology of radical
(1) ≥ 0 ; 1 - 4 ≥ 0 ; -3 ≥ 0 {false} ; if x = 3 , (3) - 4 (3) ≥ 0 ; 27 -
roots of something
12 ≥ 0 ; 15 ≥ 0 {true} ; -2 ≤ x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 2
ex. 16 = 4 , 8 = 2
3

● rational inequality
has variable in the denominator
combine all terms into one fraction ; put it on the left side
of the inequality
● nth roots
find the solutions both in numerator and denominator
n
for an integer n greater than 1 ; if b = a ; b is an n nth root
answers can be between any two consecutive roots or
of a
beyond the two end roots obtained
𝑎 = nth root of a ; n - index ; a - radicand
𝑛

substitute to check the intervals

ex. 6 ; index = 3 ; radicand = 6
3
ex.
● converting exponential expressions to radicals
(case 1)
denominator of the fractional exponent becomes index ;
numerator becomes the exponent of the radicand
1/2
ex. 2 = 2
2

● rational exponents
1/n
let a be an nth root of a ; let m be an integer
𝑛 𝑚
m/n
a = 𝑎 ; “nth root of a to the m”

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1/4
4 1 divide the exponent by the index
ex. a ; 𝑎
5 7
7/5
ex. cd ; 𝑑
1/7
ex. -h ;- ℎ
7

● converting exponential expressions to radicals

(case 2)
exponents of the expression are different ;
identify the lcd of rational exponents
convert into similar fractions
4 6 2 3 3
apply dine ex. 2 𝑥 ; 4/2 , 6/2 ; 2 x ; 4x
9 36 4
ex. ; 36/9 ; 2 ; 16
4 2
1/2 1/4 2/4 1/4 2
ex. h k ; lcd = 4 ; h k ; ℎ𝑘
1/6 3/4 2/12 9/12
12 2 9 ● simplifying radicals (extracting the perfect nth
ex. x p ; lcd = 12 ; x p ; 𝑥𝑝
root factor - case 1)
● converting radical to exponential expressions
the index becomes denominator ;
exponent of the radicant becomes numerator
1/2
ex. 5 = 5
● root integers
index = even ; radicant = negative ; root = nonreal

ex. 8 ; (4)(2) ; 2 2
ex. 5 28 ; 5 (4)(7) ; 5(2 7) ; 10 7
ex. - − 16 ; - (− 8)(2) ; -(-2 2) ; 2 2
3 3 3 3

● simplifying radicals (extracting the perfect nth

root factor - case 2)
the root for odd index is negative ; radicand = negative what if you are given a variable?
root for odd index is positive ; radicant = positive
ex. − 1 ; -1
3

ex. - − 27 ; 3
3

● nth root of a number

𝑛 𝑛
𝑎 ; |a| if n is even ; a if n is odd
2
ex. 3 ;3
7 7
ex. (− 5) ; -5
● approximation of 𝑥
5 4 1 2 1 2
find the perfect square number closest to x ex. 𝑥 ; (𝑥 )(𝑥 ) ; x 𝑥 ;x 𝑥
2
ex. 19 = 361 ; since 361 is closest to 380 ; 19 ex.
3
𝑥
17
;
3 15
(𝑥 )(𝑥 ) ; x
2 5
3
𝑥
2

● getting an approximation of a square root 3 7 11 3 6 1 9 2 3 1 2 3 2

2 3 2 3
ex. (𝑥 )(𝑦 ) ; (𝑥 )(𝑥 )(𝑦 )(𝑦 ) ; x y (𝑥 )(𝑦 ) ; x y 𝑥𝑦
find the perfect square number nearest to the given
● simplifying radicals (mixed)
number
5 30 4 1 30 2 15
find the halfway number between those two numbers ex. 200𝑥 𝑦 ; (100)(2)(𝑥 )(𝑥 )(𝑦 ) ; 10x y 2𝑥
divide by the square root of the nearest perfect square
number
ex. “simplify 79 up to two decimal places)

● similar radicals
radicals with the same index and same radicand
● adding or subtracting radical expressions (similar
radicals)
similar to operating polynomials

● simplifying radicals (extratcing the perfect nth only combine terms that are similar

root) ex. 2 3 + 8 3 ; 10 3

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3
ex. - 6 + 2 + 3 6 − 7 ; 2 6 − 5 ex. (2x 𝑥+ 3𝑦)(2x 𝑥- 3𝑦) ; 4x - 3y
ex. 8 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 5 𝑦 ; 7 𝑥 + 8 𝑦
4 4 4

● adding or subtracting radical expressions

(different radicals)
some radicals have to be simplified first before combining
2
ex. 2 8 − 3 2 ; 2 (2 )(2) - 3 2 ; 2(2 2) - 3 2 ; 4 2 − 3 2
; 2
ex. 27 + 5 3 ; (9)(3) + 5 3 ; 3 3 + 5 3 = 8 3 2 2 2 2
ex. (2+ 3) ; (a+b) = a + 2ab + b ; 4 + 2(2)( 3) + 3 ; 4 + 4 3 +
ex. - 32 + − 108 ; -2 4 + (− 3 4)
3 3 3 3

3;7+4 3
● application of radical expressions
use foil
common in geometry and trigonometry ; especially in
calculating traingles

ex. (1+ 2)(2+3 2) ; 2 + 3 2 + 2 2 + 6 ; 2 + 5 2 + 6 ; 8 + 5 2

● real world connections

● multiplying radicals (monomial by monomial)

if x is a non negative real number ; ( 𝑥)( 𝑥) = x
if the index is 2 and radicands are the same ; product is
the radicand itself
ex. ( 10)( 10) ; 10
if there are outside expressions ; multiply them together
with the product of the radicals ● division of radicals
𝑛

ex. (-2 7𝑥)(3 7𝑥) ; -6(7x) ; -42x if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers ; b ≠ 0 ;
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑎
=
𝑎
𝑏 𝑛
𝑏

simplify if necessary
25 25 5
ex. 49
= = 7
49
12 4
3 𝑚 𝑚
3 = 𝑛
𝑛

if the radicand in the numerator and denominator is not a

perfect square nor cube ;
● multiplying radicals (monomial by binomial)
divide the common factor/s of the radicands in the
apply distributive property
numerator and denominator
ex. 7(2+ 3) ; 14 + 7 3
ex. 2 2( 14 − 2 2) ; 2 28 - 4 4 ; 2 (4)(7) - 4 4 ; 2(2 7) -
4(2) ; 4 7 - 8
● multiplying radicals (binomial by binomial)
use special product 2 24
ex. ;
6

● rationalizing the denominator

if a radical expression is in its simplest form with no
radical in the denominator ; rationalize
when a radical is in the denominator of a fraction

2 2
multiply the fraction by an appropriate form of 1 to
ex. (2+ 3)(2- 3) ; (a+b)(a-b) = a - b ; 4 - 3 ; 1
eliminate the radical from the denominator

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ex. “what is the domain of f(x = 𝑥 − 5 ; 2 = even ; x - 5

≥ 0;x≥ 5
● application

ex. “determine the expression to be multiplied to

5 7
rationalize the denominator , ”;
7 7

ex. “determine the expression to be multiplied to

3 2 3
−7 11 121
rationalize the denominator , 3 ”; ; 3
5 11 3 2
11 121

ex. “rationalize the denominator then simplify or vice

2 6 2 6 2 6 6
versa , ”x ; ; 6
; 3
6 6 6
2

ex. “rationalize the denominator then simplify or vice

3 2 3 2 3
2 1 1 3 3 9
versa , ; x ; ;
3 3

6 3
; 3
3
3 3
3
2 3
3
2

● conjugate the denominator (square root)

● properties of a radical expression in simplest
form
radicand is positive
no perfect nth factors in the radicand
the xponent in the radicand is less than the index
there is no radical in the denominator

W. Exponents

● laws of exponents
zero exponent - every number except zero or variable
raised to zero ; equals one
0
ex. x = 1 ; x = 1
negative exponent - a number raised to a negative
exponent must be flipped
determine the conjugate of the denominator -1
ex. x =
multiply it to the numerator and denominator
1 -2 1
;x =
denominator should be positive 𝑥 2
𝑥

simplify further product rule - when multiplying the same base, add the

● conjugate the denominator (cube root) exponents

m n m+n 10 15 25
3
𝑎 ± 𝑏 , a ± 𝑏 , 𝑎 ± 𝑏 ; multiply both numerator and
3 3 3 ex. x (x ) = x ; x (x ) = x

denominator by ; (square of 1st term) - (1st term)(2nd term) 1st power rule - keep the base and multiply the exponents
m n mn
+ (square of 2nd term) ex. (x )x = x

ex. 2nd/power of a product - power each factor and then

multiply the resulting powers ; distribute
m m m 3 3 3 3
ex. (xy) = x y ; (-2y) = -2 y = -8y
3rd power rule - top to bottom simplifying of exponents
n^m 2^3 8
ex. x ;2 = 2 = 256
● domain of radical functions
quotient rule - in dividing two same base monomials,
even index is the set of all real numbers that would make
subtract their exponents
the radicand greater than or equal to 0 𝑥
𝑛
𝑛−𝑚
ex. =𝑥
odd index is the set of all real numbers
𝑚
𝑥

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distributive rule - distribute the power on the numerator
and denominator
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥
ex. ( 𝑦 ) = 𝑛
𝑦
x
● if a > 0, then a is always positive
5 -3
ex. 3 , 2 , e ; are all positive numbers
−21
55

2
● if x < 0; then x > x
2
ex. (-2) > -2
2
● if 0 < x < 1; then x < 2
1 2 1
ex. ( 2 ) < ( 2 )
2
● if x > 1, then x > x
2
ex. 2 > 2
0
● x = 1, where x is any non-zero real number ● formulas of complex numbers
0
ex. -214 = 1 combine similar terms
n
● 1 = 1, where n is any real number it means that combine the real number with the real
ex. (1)− =1
3𝑒
12515167
number and imaginary number with the imaginary
n
● (-1) = 1, where n is any even integer number
88
ex. (-1) = 1
addition (a+ib) + (c+id) = (a+c) + i(b+d)
n
● (-1) = -1, where n is any odd integer
17985
ex. (-1) = -1 subtraction (a+ib) – (c+id) = (a–c) + i(b–d)
n
● if x is negative and n is even, then x is positive
64 multiplication foil method ; (a+ib). (c+id) =
ex. (-2) > 0
n -n (ac–bd) + i(ad+bc)
● x = 1/x
−1 3
𝑥 𝑦
ex. −3 = 1
division multiplying the numerator
𝑦 𝑥
x y and denominator by its
● if a = a , then x = y
x 2x-1
conjugate value of the
ex. 5 = 5 ; x = 2x - 1 ; 1 = 2x - x ; x = 1
denominator ; then applying
2
● -x is negative, where x is any real number the FOIL Method ; (a+ib) / (c +
2
ex. -4 = -16 id) = (ac+bd)/ (c2+d2) + i(bc–ad)
2
● (-x) is positive, where x is any real number / (c2+d2)
2
ex. (-4) = 16
● domain of exponential functions
always the set of all real numbers
x-4
ex. “find the domain of f(x) = 3 - 4” ; R
II. Topic 2: Geometry
A. Points and Lines
X. Complex Numbers (definition
focused) ● points and lines
points - denotes an exact location on a plane
● complex numbers
line segment - has defined end points
numbers expressed n the form of a+ib where, a,b are real
ray - one endpoint and extends the other direction
numbers and 'i' is an imaginary number called “iota”
endlessly
combination of real and imaginary numbers.
line - no endpoint and extends both direction endlessly
the real part can be expressed by an integer or decimal
the imaginary part has a square that is negative
arise from the need to express negative numbers' roots,
which real numbers can't do
the value of i = (√-1)
i = √-1 ; i2 = -1
ex. 2+3i is a complex number ; where 2 is a real number horizontal - left to right
(re) ;3i is an imaginary number (Im) vertical - top to bottom
ex. 1 + j , -13 – 3i , 0.89 + 1.2 i , √5 + √2i parallel - two lines that do not meet at any point
ex. perpendicular - meet at a right angle
collinear points - points that lie on the same line
coplanar points - points that lie on the same plane
● distance formula

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to determine the distance of p(x1,y1) , q(x2,y2) ; 2 2
;z= 3
(14-5) + 5 ; 3
(9) +
2 2
pq = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1) 18
5; 3
+ 5 ; 6 + 5 ; z = 11
ex. “calculate the distance between points a(2,3) , y(-1,0)” ;
● finding a point inside a tilted line given two end
2 2 2 2
ay = (− 1 − 2) + (0 − 3) ; (− 3) + (− 3) ; 9 + 9 points
; 18 ; (9)(2) ; ay = 3 2 break down the line into two parts ; horizontal , vertical
● midpoint formula solve each by using the previous formulas
to determine the midpoint of p(x1,y1) , q(x2,y2) ;
(𝑥1+𝑥2) (𝑦1+𝑦2)
m𝑝𝑞 = ( 2
, 2
)
ex. “find the midpoint of e(2,5) , t(6,-3)” ; m𝑒𝑡 =
(2+6) (5+(−3) 8 2
( 2
, 2
);(2 , 2
) ; m𝑒𝑡 = (4,1) ex. ; horizontal , 10 - 2 = 8 ; 8/3
● location of a point = 2.67 ; 2.67 ; vertical , 15 - 3 = 12 ; 12/3 = 4 ; 4 ; 2 + 2.67 +
2 2 2
(xy) ~ (x-h) + (y-k) = r 2.67 = 7.34 ; 3 + 4 + 4 = 11 ; (7.34,11)

on the circle
2
(x-h) + (y-k) = r
2 2 ● number of all possible segments formed
connecting ‘n’ dots
2 2 2
interior (x-h) + (y-k) < r the number of segments n-distinct dots can have ;
𝑛(𝑛−1)
;
2

2 2 2 ‘n’ = number of dots

exterior (x-h) + (y-k) > r
ex. “how many line segments can you create from 5
5(5−1) 5(4) 20
2 2 2 2
distinct dots?” ; 2
; 2
; 2
; 10
ex. (x+2) + (y-3) = 4 ; n(-1,5) ; point loc = ?? ; (-1+2) + (5-3) ;
2 2
● number of all possible rays formed connecting ‘n’
(-1) + (2) ; 1 + 4 ; 5 > 4 ; exterior
dots
● distance of a point and a line
the number of rays n-distinct dots can have ;
the distance of a point ‘p’ and a line ‘l’ is the shortest line
2(n-1) ; ‘n’ = number of dots
‘d’ that is made from the point to the line perpendicularly
ex. “how many rays can you create from 5 distinct dots?” ;
ex. “what is the distance of the point (-3,5) on the axis?” ;
2(5-1) ; 2(4) ; 8
● number of all possible diagonals inside a regular
polygon
the number of diagonals a regular polygon can have ;
𝑛(𝑛−3)
the smallest line is the vertical line created from the point 2
; ‘n’ = number of sides of the polygon
to the axis; d = 5 ex. “how many diagonals can you create from a regular
● distance of a point and a line formula decagon” ;
10(10−3)
;
10(7)
;
70
; 35
2 2 2
the distance from a point (e,d) to the line ax + by + c = 0 ; ● number of all possible triangles formed from ‘n’
|𝑎𝑒+𝑏𝑑+𝑐|
non-parallel lines
2 2
𝑎 +𝑏 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
; will only work when there are no three or
ex. “what is the distance of (-3,2) to line 2x + 4y - 5” ; 6

|(2)(−3)+(4)(2)+(−5)| |−6+8+(−5)| |−6+8+(−5)| 3 3 more lines intersecting the same point

; ; ; ; ;
4+16 4+16 20 (4)(5)
ex. “how many triangles can be formed by 5 non-parallel
2 2
(2) +(4)
3
5(5−1)(5−2) 5(4)(3) 5(12) 60
2 5 lines” ; 6
; 6
; 6
; 6
; 10
● finding a point inside a straight line given two
end points
find the length of the whole line B. Plane
divide the number of segments that the line is broken into ● plane
you will get the distance between points a flat two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far
solve

ex. ; 14 - 5 = 9 ; 9 / 3 = 3 ;
● line perpendicular to a plane
second point , 5 + 3 = 8 ; third point , 8 + 3 = 11
it means the line is also perpendicular to all of the lines
● finding a point inside a line given two end points
lying on the plane
(formula)
a = ordinal position of the missing point ; b = number of
segments the line is broken into ; counting of points to get
their ordinal position starts at 0 ; z =
𝑎
𝑏
(x2-x1) + x1 ● convex vs concave
convex - curved outwards ; concave - curved inwards
ex.

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right one right angle ;

exactly 90º

ex. an angle is a concave

equiangular all congruent
● polygons
angles
a plane ; a closed shape formed by straight line segment

● sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle

(theorem)
m∠1 + m∠3 + m∠2 = 180

C. Angles & Triangles - tok, gr 9, gr 10

ex.
● interior angles of a transversal line corollary ; each angle of an equiangular triangles measures
angles created inside the parallel line 60º
● opposite angles
all angles have the same value
● adjacent angles
sums up to 180º corollary ; there can be at most one right triangle or at
● complement most one obtuse angle
the complement of x is 90 - x
● supplement
the supplement of x is 180 - x
● triangle corollary ; the acute angles of a right triangle are
if A, B, C are any three noncollinear points ; the union of complementary
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 is called a triangle ; ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶

; vertices - a , b , c ; sides - 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 ; ● exterior angle of a triangle

three angles - ∠a , ∠b , ∠c an angle that forms a linear pair with an angle of a
● classification of triangles (based on sides) triangle
scalene no congruent sides

ex.
isosceles at least two
congruent sides ● remote interior angles
two non-adjacent interior angles of a triangle with respect
to the exterior angle
equilateral all congruent sides

ex. interior angles of ∠1 ;

● classification of triangles (based on angles)

acute all acute angles ; ex. interior angles of ∠5 ;

less than 90º
● exterior angle (theorem)
the measure of an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the
obtuse one obtuse angle ;
measures of its two remote interior angles
greater than 90º

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; m∠4 = m∠1 + m∠2 ; m∠5 =

m∠2 + m∠3 ex. ; 𝐷𝐸 is a perpendicular bisector of
● median ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
a segment is a median if it extends from a vertex o the ● bisectors of a transversal’s interior angle
triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side on the same side of a transversal are perpendicular

ex. ; 𝐵𝐹 is a median of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ; f is ● similar polygons

the midpoint of 𝐴𝐶
● angle bisector
a segment is an angle bisector if it bisects an angle of a
triangle and has one endpoint on the opposite side

∠l ≈ ∠h ; ∠o ≈ ∠a ; ∠v ≈ ∠p ; ∠e ≈ ∠y
corresponding angles are angles that are congruent
ex. ; 𝐵𝐷 is an angle bisector of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
; ∠ABD ≈ ∠CBD
● altitude
a segment is an altitude if it is perpendicular from a vertex
corresponding sides are sides that follow the scale factor
of the triangle to the line containing its opposite side
or constant ratio
● correspondence rule
the vertices in a similarity statement must be listed in
ex. ; 𝐴𝐷 is an altitude of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ; corresponding order
𝐴𝐷 ⊥ 𝐵𝐶 ex. quadrilateral LOVE ~ HAPY ; l corresponds to h
● altitudes of a right and obtuse ∆

ex. ; scale factor of

𝑎𝑒 18 9
● altitude-on-hypotenuse theorem (divided parts of pentagon ABCDE to pentagon RSTUV ; 𝑟𝑣
= 4
= 2
;

hypotenuse)
used in finding the lengths of the parts of a divided
hypotenuse
;

2 2
𝑎 𝑏
x= 𝑐
;y= 𝑐 ;
● altitude-on-hypotenuse theorem (altitude length) “what is the ratio of the perimeters of the two polygons?” ;
used in finding the length of the altitude that divides the 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸
=
99
=
9
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑆𝑇𝑈𝑉 22 2
hypotenuse ● similar polygons (theorem)
if two polygons are similar ; the ratio of their perimeters is
the same as the scale factor of the similarity for the sides

z = 𝑥𝑦
● perpendicular bisector
a line that is perpendicular to the segment at its midpoint

● aa similarity postulate
if two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles

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of another angle ; they are similar if b is between a and c ; ac = ab + bc ; ac > ab ; ac > bc
if b is in the interior of ∠adc ; m∠adc = m∠1 + m∠2

if ∠a ≈ ∠d ; ∠b ≈ ∠i ; ∆𝐵𝐴𝐺 ~ ∆𝐼𝐷𝑃
● sss theorem
● exterior angle inequality theorem
if the corresponding lengths of sides of triangles are in
the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater
proportion following the scale factor ; the triangles are
than the measure of either of its remote interior angles
similar

𝑚𝑛 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑚
if = = ; ∆𝑀𝑁𝑂 ~ ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅
𝑝𝑞 𝑞𝑟 𝑟𝑝 ● triangle inequality theorem (examples)
● sas theorem
if an angle of one triangle is congruent to another
triangle’s angle ; the lengths of the sides including those
angles are in proportion ; the triangles are similar

ex. ; m∠2 < m∠5 ; m∠6 = m∠8 ;

m∠9 > m∠4 ; m∠10 < m∠1 ; m∠3 cannot be determine
m∠4 ; m∠8 = m∠2 + m∠3

𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑖
● inequality/converse inequality in a single triangle
if ∠g ≈ ∠j ; = ; ∆𝐺𝐻𝐼 ~ ∆𝐽𝐾𝐿
𝑗𝑘 𝑗𝑙
theorem
● area of two similar triangles
if two sides of a triangle are not congruent ; the angles
if the ratio of the sides of a similar triangle is x + y ; the
opposite them are no congruent ; the larger angle is
2 2
ratio of their area is x :y
opposide the longer side , vice versa
ex. “what is the area of the second triangle if the area of
the first triangle is 64 cm?” ; ratio of sides , 16:4 = 4:1 ; the
ratio of their area , 16:1 ; the area of second triangle ;
1 𝑥 64 2
16
= 64
;x= 16
; x = 4cm
● recall: properties of inequality largest angle , ∠r ; smallest angle ∠i
trichotomy a<b;a=b;a>b longest side , 𝑂𝑅 ; shortest side , 𝑂𝑃
property ● triangle inequality theorem
the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is
addition property if a > b ; c ≥ d ; a + ex.
greater than the length of the third side
of inequality c>b+d 5>3;5+2_3+2;
7>5

multiplication if a > b ; c < 0 ; ac > ex.

property of bc 10 > 6 ; 10(-2) _ a+b>c;a+c>b;b+c>a
inequality if a > b ; c < 0 ; ac < 6(-2) ; -20 < -12 ● range of the length of a missing side
bc
given two sides of the triangle ‘a’ ‘b’ ; ‘x’ be the length of

transitive property if a > b ; b > c ; a > a=5,b=4,c=3;

the third side ; the range of the possible values for ‘x’ is ;

of inequality c if 5 > 4 ; 4 > 3 ; 5 >

3
|a-b|<x<|a+b| ;
● isosceles/converse triangle theorem
ex. a = 7 , b = 10 ; |a-b| ; |7-10| ; 3 ; |a+b| = |7+10| ; 17
if two sides of a triangle are congruent ; the angles
● pythagorean theorem and special triangles
opposite those sides are congruent , vice versa
isosceles right
right triangle triangle (30º-60º-90º)
(45º-45º-90º)

; ∠a ≈ ∠c ; m∠a = m∠c ; 𝐴𝐵 ≈ 𝐶𝐵 ;
ab = cb
● whole-part theorem
thw whole is greater than any of its parts

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2 2 2
10cm?” ; 5 + 3 + 10 ; 25 + 9 + 100 ; 134
● multiple pythagorean triples of a base
pythagorean triple
base pythagorean triple are triples with no common factor
ex. bpt , 3 4 5 ; multiple of the triple , 6 8 10
● height of an equilateral triangle given side length
𝑥 3
2
; ‘x’ = length of one side
● side length of an equilateral triangle given height
2ℎ
; ‘h’ = height
3

● area of an equilateral triangle given side length

2
𝑥 3
4
; ‘x’ = length of one side
● area of a triangle given base and height
2 2 2
c =a +b hypotenuse ; hypotenuse ; a=
𝑏ℎ
2
(leg)( 2) ; (a)( 2) (shorter leg)(2) ;
leg ; (a)(2)
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎 2 longer leg ;
;
2 2
(shorter leg)( 3) ;
(a)( 3) ● area of a triangle given two sides and inner angle
shorter leg ; a=
𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
;
𝑎𝑏
2 2
𝑎 3 2𝑎
; 2
3

● getting pythagorean triple given the smallest odd

length side ● area of a triangle (heron’s formula)
square the odd number a = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) ; ‘s’ = half of the perimeter
divide it by 2
answer would output a number with ‘.5’
round this up or down to get the odd number’s
pythagorean triple
2
ex. “let 7 be one of the sides of a right triangle” ; 7 ; 49 ;
D. Parallelograms & Quadrilaterals
49
2
; 24.5 ; 7 , 24 , 25
● getting pythagorean triple given the smallest
● quadrilaterals
even length side
trapezium a quadrilateral
divide the number by 2
with no pair of
square the quotient
parallel sides
answer would input a whole number
the succeeding and preceding integers are its pythagorean
chevron a concave
triple trapezium with
8 2
ex. “let 8 be one of the sides of a right triangle” ; 2
;4;4 ; two pairs of

16 ; 8 , 15 , 17 congruent sides

● converse of pythagorean theorem

kite a convex
2 2 2
if c = a + b ; right triangle
trapezium with
2 2 2
if c < a + b ; acute triangle two pairs of
2 2 2
if c > a + b ; obtuse triangle congruent sides
● pythagorean theorem (3d)
trapezoid a quadrilateral
mostly applied in finding the longest diagonal formed
with exactly one
inside a cuboid
pair of parallel
sides

isosceles trapezoid a trapezoid in

which the
non-parallel sides
are congruent
ex. “what is the length of the longest diagonal that can be
formed inside a cuboid whose dimensions are 5cm , 3cm ,

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parallelogram a quadrilateral
with two pairs of
parallel sides

rectangle a parallelogram
with four right
angles

rhombus a parallelogram
with four
congruent sides ex. ; a = ?? ; 180 - 82 ; a = 98 ; b = ?? ; b
= 82 ; c = ?? ; 180 - 82 ; c = 98
square a parallelogram ex.
with four right
angles and four
congruent sides

● parallelogram
a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides

parallelogram ABCD ; 𝐴𝐵 is parallel to 𝐷𝐶 ; 𝐴𝐷 is parallel

to 𝐵𝐶
● properties of parallelogram
theorem 1 ; consecutive angles of a parallelogram are
supplementary
opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent

theorem 2 ; a diagonal of a prallelogram forms two ● special parallelograms (rectangle)

congruent triangles a parallelogram with four right angles

theorem ; its diagonals are congruent

parallelogram ABCD ; diagonal 𝐴𝐶 ; ∆𝐴𝐷𝐶 ≈ ∆𝐶𝐵𝐴

theorem 3 ; opposite sides of a parallelogram are rectangle ABCD ; 𝐴𝐶 ≈ 𝐷𝐵 ; 𝐴𝐸 ≈ 𝐸𝐶 ; 𝐷𝐸 ≈ 𝐸𝐵
congruent ● special parallelograms (rhombus)
a parallelogram with four congruent sides
theorem ; its diagonals are perpendicular

parallelogram ABCD ; 𝐴𝐵 ≈ 𝐷𝐶 ; 𝐴𝐷 ≈ 𝐵𝐶
theorem 4 ; the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other
rhombus RHOM ; 𝑅𝑂 ⊥ 𝑀𝐻
theorem ; each diagonal of a rhombus bisects two angles
of the rhombus

parallelogram ABCD ; diagonals 𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝐵 intersecting at e ;

𝐴𝐸 ≈ 𝐸𝐶 ; 𝐷𝐸 ≈ 𝐸𝐵

rhombus RHOM ; 𝑅𝑂 bisects ∠MRH and ∠MOH ; 𝑀𝐻

bisects ∠RMO and ∠RHO
● special parallelograms (square)

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a parallelogram with four right angles and four congruent a = bh ; ‘b’ = side length ; ‘h’ = height
sides
theorem ; its diagonals are congruent and perpendicular

● are of a rhombus given two diagonals

1
a= 2
d1d2 ; ‘d1’ ‘d2’ are the rhombus diagonals

square SQUA ; 𝑆𝑈 ⊥ 𝑄𝐴 ; 𝑆𝑈 ≈ 𝑄𝐴 ; 𝑆𝑅 ≈ 𝑅𝑈 ≈ 𝑄𝑅 ≈ 𝑅𝐴
theorem ; each diagonal of a square bisects two angles of
the square ● area of a rhombus given side length and angle
2
a = s sin(θ) ; ‘s’ = side length ; ‘θ’ = any interior angle

square SQUA ; 𝑆𝑈 bisects ∠QSA and ∠QUA ; 𝑄𝐴 bisects

∠SQU and ∠SAU
E. Circles
● properties of parallelograms (summary)
● circle
set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from
a given point
named by its center ; ‘p’ center of the circle

● distance from the vertices of a point inside a

rectangle
given a random point inside a rectange, its distance from
the four vertices has the relationship as follows
; •p , “circle p” ; all points have equal
distance from p ; 𝑎𝑝 is a radius of the circle
● a circle divides the plane into three sets of points
2 2 2 2
a +c =b +d interior point - if pa < r ; any point in the region
● diagonal of a square exterior point - if pa > r ; any point in the outside
get the length of the diagonal of a square by multiplying on the circle - if pa = r ; any point on the outline
its side length by 2 ; diagonal of length ‘d’
● finding side length of a square given its diagonal
𝑑
each side of square has length
2

● finding area of a square given its diagonal

2
𝑑
area is 2
; diagonal of length ‘d’ ex. ; b - interior point ; c - exterior point
● area of a parallelogram ; d - point on the circle
base x height ● segments of a circle

radius segment from the

center of the circle

● median of a trapezoid to a point on the

circle ;
the horizontal line halfway between two bases
𝑏1+𝑏2 radii in the same
length is equal to ; ‘b1’ ‘b2’ are its bases
2 circle are equal in
length

chord segment from two

endpoints on the
● area of a trapezoid circle ;
𝑏1+𝑏2
h( 2
) ; hm ; ‘b1’ ‘b2’ are the bases of the trapezoid ; ‘h’ is some chords are

height ; ‘m’ is median diameters

diameter segment whose

endpoints are both
on the circle
● area of a rhombus given base and height

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centrifugal force = centripetal force ; circle movement
including the
center ; when two forces disappear ; angular momentum will make
all diameters are the object travel at a tangent to the circle
chords ; ● tangent
diameters are of a line, ray, or segment that intersect the circle at one point
equal length ; only
twice the length of
point of tangency - one point intersecting the circle
the radius

secant a line, ray, or

segment that
intersect the circle
at two points ;
< > >
extends outside 𝐴𝑁 is tangent to C at A ; 𝐴𝑁 and 𝐴𝑁 are also tangents
● tangent segment
tangent a line, ray, or
a segment is a tangent segment if ;
segment that
one of its edpoints is on the circle and the other is in the
intersect the circle
at one point only
exterior ;
the line containing the segment is tangent to the circle

● pythagorean theorem on circles

isosceles right
right triangle triangle (30º-60º-90º)
(45º-45º-90º)

𝐹𝐺 is a tangent to A at H ; not a tangent segment

𝐵𝐸 the line is not tangent to A ; not a tangent segment
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐻 𝐻𝐺 are tangents to A ; have proper endpoints ;
tangent segments
● tangent segment (theorem)
if a line is tangent to a circle ; the line is perpendicular to
2
c =a +b
2 2
hypotenuse ; hypotenuse ; the radius at the point of tangency

(leg)( 2) ; (a)( 2) (shorter leg)(2) ;

leg ; (a)(2)
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎 2 longer leg ;
;
2 2
(shorter leg)( 3) ;
(a)( 3)
>
shorter leg ;
if 𝐵𝐶 is tangent to A at C ; 𝐵𝐶 is perpendicular to the
𝑎 3
;
2𝑎 radius 𝐴𝐶 at C
3 2
corollary ; if a line in the plane of a circle is perpendicular
to a radius at its endpoint on the circle ; the line is tangent
to the circle

ex. ; solve for x , y , z ; x = d / 2 ; x = 18/2 ;

< >
2 2 2 2 if 𝐵𝐶 is in the same plane as A and is perpendicular to a
x = 9 ; y = 10 2 / 2 ; x = 5 2 ; right triangle ; c = a + b ; 9 =
< >
2
radius 𝐴𝐶 at C ; 𝐵𝐶 is tangent to circle A
2 2 2 2 2
(5 2 ) + z ; 81 = (25x2) + z ; 81 - 50 = z ; z = 31 ; 𝑧 = 31
corollary ; tangent segments from a common external
; z = 31 point are congruent or equal
● properties of tangents
centrifugal force - flings the object outward
centripetal force - makes it want to move toward the
center
angular momentum - makes it want to move in a straight
line tangent segments 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 are congruent since they share a

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common external point D circle
corollary ; two tangent rays from a common external point
minor arc endpoints are
determine a ray-bisected angle from the external point to (0-180º) points on the
the center circle ;
contains all points
in the interior of
the central angle ; interior of central
measure is same angle
as the central its measure is
>
since ∠BDA is bisected by 𝐷𝐶 ; ∠BDC is congruent to angle same as the
∠ADC central angle

major arc endpoints are

(180-360º) points on the
circle ;
2 2 2 2 2
ex. ; c = a + b ; (x+8) = x + contains all points
2 2 2 2 2
(12) ; x + 16x + 64 = x + 144 ; x - x + 16x = 144 - 64 ; 16x = of the circle in the
16𝑥 80
80 ; 16
= 16
;x=5 exterior of the exterior of central
● circumscribed polygon central angle ; angle
measure is 360º 360 - 120 = 240
a polygon is circumscribed about a circle ; each circle of
minus the
the polygon is tangent to the circle
measure of its
related minor arc

semicircle endpoints are

(180º) endpoints of the
diameter
sides 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐷𝐴 are tangent to O
quadrilateral ABCD is circumsribed about O
endpoints of the
diameter
360 / 2 = 180 is its
measure

each side of the polygon is tangent to the circle ● congruent arcs

each pair of tangent segments meet at a common vertex ; arcs that have the same measure and length
congruent may be in the same or congruent circles
● area of a circle inscribed in a square
𝑥 2 𝑥
π( 2
) ; ‘x’ - side length ; 2
- radius

if circles have congruent radii ; congruent circles

ex. “what is the area of a circle inscribed in a square with a
4 2 16π 2 ● adjacent non overlapping arcs
side length of 4 cm?” ; π( 2 ) ; 4
; 4π cm
two arcs of the circle that have one point in common
● central angle
its vertex is the center of the circle
intersects the circle in two points
sides contain the radii

arcAN & arcTN

postulate ; the measure of an arc formed by two adjacent
non over-lapping arcs is the sum of those two arcs

∠BAC ; central angle of A ; A is its vertex ; intersects the

circle in points B and C ; has sides with two radii 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
● arc
unbroken part of the circumference or perimeter of a

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if AB > CD ; 𝐴𝐵 is closer to center O

m.arcLV + m.arcVE = m.arcLE ; 70º + 55º = m.arcLE
m.arcLE = 125º
● arcs, chords, and central angles (theorem)
theorem 5.1 ; in the same circle or in congruent circles
whose radii are congruent ; two minor arcs are congruent
if their central angles are congruent, vice versa if AB ≠ CD and OE < OF ; 𝐴𝐵 is closer to center O
● intercepted arc
an arc is intercepted by an angle if ;
the endpoints of the arc lie on the angle ;
all other points of the arc are in the interior of the angle ;
each side of the angle has at least one endpoint of the arc
arcBU is congruent to arcRD ; ∠BLU is congruent to
∠RED
in the same or congruent circles ; two central angles are
congruent if their minor arcs are congruent
theorem 5.2 ; in the same circle or in congruent circles ∠CAD intercepts arcCD ; ∠BCD intercepts arc BED
whose radii are congruent ; two minor arcs are congruent ● inscribed angle
if their chords are congruent, vice versa an angle is inscribed in a circle if ;
its vertex is on the circle ;
each of its sidees contains a chord of the circle ;
it intercepts an arc

arcHP is congruent to arc PE ; 𝐻𝑃 is congruent to 𝑃𝐸

theoremt 5.3 ; if a diameter is perpendicular to a chord
and forms a right angle ; it bisects the chord at its arc ; if a
radius is perpendicular to a chord ; it bisects the chord
∠BCD, ∠BDE ; inscribed angles
and its arc
∠BAE ; vertex not on circle ; chords not sides
∠DEA ; only 𝐷𝐸 is a chord as its side ; no intercepted arc
● inscribed polygon
a polygon is inscribed in a circle if ;
every vertex of the polygon are points on the circle
if 𝐶𝐷 is perpendicular to 𝐴𝐵 ; 𝐴𝐸 is congruent to 𝐵𝐸 ;
arcAC is congruent to arcBC
theorem 5.4 ; in the same circle or in a congruent circle ;
two chords are equidisant from the center if they are
congruent, vice versa
polygonABCDE is inscribed in F
quadrilateralCDEF is not inscribed in F ; F is not a point
on the circle
● inscribed angle (theorem)
the measure of an inscribed angle is equal to ½ the
𝐸𝑂 is congruent to 𝐹𝑂 ; 𝐴𝐵 is congruent to 𝐶𝐷
measure of its intercepted arc
two chords are congruent if they are equidisant from the
center
theorem 5.5 , 5.6 ; if two chord are unequal or not
equidisant from the center ; the longer chord is nearer to
the center of the circle

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∠BCD is an inscribed angle intercepting arcBD ● measure of the angle found inside the circle
m∠BCD =
1
m.arcBD ; m∠BCD =
1
(144) ; m∠BCD = 72 (theorem)
2 2

corollary ; an inscribed angle that intercepts a semicircle if two chords, two secants, or a chord and a secant

is a right angle intersect in the interior ; the measure of one of the vertical
angles formed is equal to ½ the sum of the measures of the
arcs intercepted by the angles

if inscribed angle ∠MOS intercepts semicircle MTS ;

∠MOS is a right angle m∠I =
1
(m.arcAD+m.arcBC) ; m∠1 =
(𝑚.𝑎𝑟𝑐𝐴𝐷+𝑚.𝑎𝑟𝑐𝐵𝐶)
2 2
corollary ; if two inscribed angle in a circle intercept the ● measure of the angle found in the exterior of the
same or congruent arcs ; the angles are congruent
circle (theorem)
if a tangent and a secant, two secants, or two tangents
intersect in the exterior ; the measure of the angle formed
is equal to ½ the absolute value of the difference of the
measures of the intercepted arcs

if ∠DCB and ∠DEB intercept the same arcBD ; ∠DCB is

congruent to ∠DEB
corollary ; if a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle ; its
opposite angles are supplementary 1 |𝑥−𝑦|
m∠I = 2
|𝑥 − 𝑦| ; m∠I = 2

● perimeter and circumference

perimeter - distance around a two-dimensional shape
circumference - perimeter of a circle ; distance around a
circle
● circumference and arc length (theorem)
quadrilateral CARE is inscribed in S
for all circles ; ratio of the circumference to the diamter is
∠C and ∠R are opposite angles ; supplementary
the same ; 3.14 or approximation of π
m∠C + m∠R = 180
corollary ; if two arcs of a circle are included between
parallel chords ; the arcs are congruent

𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
𝑑1
= 𝑑2
= 𝑑3
𝑐
𝑑
≈ 3. 14 or π ; c = 2πr ; c = πd
radius ; d = 2r
if two chords 𝐶𝐷 𝐵𝐸 are parallel ; arcCB is congruent to
● arc lengths & measure
arcDE
not the same ;
● angles formed by tangents, secants, chords
arc length ‘l’ - a portion of the circumference of the circle
the location of point of vertex of two chords (chord,secant)
or of the value of 2πr
, two secants (chord,tangent) , two tangents
arc measure ‘m’ - a portion of the measure of the circle or
(secant,tangent) ; deals with three theorems
of 360º
● measure of the angle found on the circle
corollary ; the ratio of the length of an arc to the
(theorem)
circumference equals to the ratio of the degree measure of
if a tangent and a chord, tangent, or secant intersect at a
the arc to 360 ;
point on the circle ; the measure of the angle they form is
arc measure arc length circumferen
½ the measure of its intercepted arc
ce

𝑙 𝑚 (𝑙)(360) 𝑚 (𝑙)(360)
𝑐
= 360
m= 𝑐
l = ( 360 )(𝑐) ; c= 𝑚

‘m’ - can be
the angle
made by the
1 1
m∠DBC = 2
m.arcDEB ; 2
(180) ; m∠DBC = 90 arc

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triangle a=
𝑏ℎ
2
𝑙 𝑚 𝑙 90 𝑙 1
ex. r = 12 , m = 90 , l = ?? ; 𝑐
= 360
; 24π
= 360
; 24π
= 4
; b - base ; h -
4𝑙 24π
4l = 24π ; 4
= 4
; l = 6π height

● area of a circle
number of square units in the interior of the circle
● area of a circle (theorem)
2
the area ‘a’ of a circle with radius of length ‘r’ ; a = πr
area of the circle = area of a rectangle ; base x height
height of a rectangle - radius ; base of a rectangle - ½ of
circumference
circumferece = 2πr ; base = πr 2
square a=s
2 2 2 2
ex. r = 7 cm ; a = πr ; π7 ; a = 49π cm s - side
● area of half & quarter a circle
2
π𝑟
half ; 2
; ‘r’ - radius
rectangle a = bh
ex.”what is the area of a half circle that has a radius of 2
Arectangle = lw
2
π2 4π
in?” ; 2
; 2
; 2π b - base ; h -
π𝑟
2
height ; l - length ;
quarter ; 4
; ‘r’ - radius
w - width
ex. “what is the area of a quarter circle having a radius of 2
2 2
cm?” ;
π2
;
4π
; 2π circle a = πr
4 2
r - radius
● area of a segment of a circle
2
𝑚 2 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚)
Asegment = Asector - Atriangle ; 360
(π𝑟 ) − 2

ex. r = 5 , area of a segment that has a central angle of 30º”

2 sector 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
=
𝑚
30 2 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) 1 25 25(π−3)
; Asegment = ; π(25) - ;
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 360
360
(π5 ) − 2 12 4 12 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚
2 =
2 360
cm π𝑟

Asector =
● area of a shaded region (sectors - notebook) 𝑚 2
( 360 )(π𝑟 )
a sector of a circle is the region bounded by two radii of
a - area ;
the circle and an arc
m - measure ; r -
major sector - arc measure ; > 180º radius
minor sector - arc measure ; < 180º
corollary ;
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚 𝑚 2
● equation of a circle (formulas recall + new)
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
= 360
; 2 = 360
; Asector = ( 360 )(π𝑟 ) ; m’ -
π𝑟 2 2
distance ; p(x1,y1) , q(x2,y2) ; pq = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
can be the angle made by the arc
𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2
midpoint ; p(x1,y1) , q(x2,y2) ; m𝑝𝑞 = ( 2
, 2
) ; the
coordinates of the midpoint is the average of the x and y
coordinates of its endpoints
𝑎.𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚 𝑎.𝑠𝑒𝑐 30
ex. ; 𝑎.𝑐𝑖𝑟
= 360
; 2 − 360
; standard form ; with center at (h,k) ; (x-h) + (y-k) = r
2 2 2
π(4)
2 2 2 2 2
𝑎.𝑠𝑒𝑐
−
1
; (16π)(
𝑎.𝑠𝑒𝑐
−
1
)(16π) ; a.sec =
16π
;
4π
; ex. center (2,1) , r = 8 cm ; (x-h) + (y-k) = r ; (x-2) + (y-1) =
16π 12 16π 12 12 3
2 2 2
4π 2 8 ; (x-2) + (y-1) = 64
a.sec = 3
cm
ex. center (0,0) , passing through point A (2,-3) ; radius
● area of a shaded region (sectors - tok)
2 2
Ashaded = larger sector - smaller sector using distance formula ; r = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1) ;
2 2 2 2
(2 − 0) + (− 3 − 0) ; 2 + (− 3) ; 4 + 9 ; r = 13
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
; equation ; (x-h) + (y-k) = r ; (x-0) + (y-0) = ( 13) ; x + y
= 13
2 2 2
location of a point (x,y) ; (xy) ~> (x-h) + (y-k) = r ;
ex. “area of the shaded region if the angle of the sector is
2 2 2
60º” ;
60
π8 -
2 60
π25 ;
2 1
(64π-25π) ;
13
π units
2 on the circle (x-h) + (y-k) = r
360 360 6 2

● areas of circles and other shaded regions 2 2 2

interior (x-h) + (y-k) < r
(formulas)
2 2 2
exterior (x-h) + (y-k) > r

2 2
general form ; ax + by + cx + dy + e = 0 ; a ≠ 0 ; a = b

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● converting standard to general ● exterior angle of a regular polygon
expand the squared binomial the value of an exterior angle of a regular polygon ;
360º
;
𝑛
transpose all the terms to one side n = number of sides of the polygon
combine like terms ex. “what is the exterior angle in a regular decagon?” ;
arrange starting with the highest degree 360º
; 36º
10
2 2 2 2 2 2
ex. (x-9) + y = 1 ; (x - 18x + 81) + y = 1 ; x + y - 18x + 81 - 1
● sum of all five interior angles in a star
2 2
= 0 ; x + y - 18x + 80 = 0
the five shaded angles in the star always sums up to 180º
● converting general to standard
regardless of lengths
transpose the constant
group the terms with same variables
make into pst ; add the same values
simplify
● stars with equal side lengths
factor
2 2 2 2 2 2 all stars with equal sides have 36-72-72 angles
ex. x + y - 10x + 9 = 0 ; x + y - 10x = -9 ; (x - 10x) + y = -9 ;
2 2 2 2 2 2
(x -10x+25) + y = -9 +25 ; (x -10x+25) + y = 16 ; (x-5) + y =
16
● graphing a circle
determine the radius and center
locate and plot center (h,k) ● area of an ellipse
make 4 points which are radius ‘r’ units away from the
center
sketch
● deegenerate cases of a circle a = rRπ ; r = smaller radius ; R = bigger radius
the standard form does not always describe the graph of a ex. “what is the area of an ellipse with radii of 5 cm and 9
circle ; depending on the value of r
2
cm?” ; a = (5)(9)π cm ; a = 45πcm
2 ● area of a complex shape
r >0 circle with center (h,k) and
radius
break it down to smaller shapes where we can find the
area of each shape
2
r =0 a single point (h,k)

2
r <0 does not have a graph

2 2 2 2 2 2
ex. x + y - 12y + 40 = 0 ; x + (y -12y) = -40 ; x + (y -12y+36) ex. ; “what is the
2 2
= -40 + 36 ; x + (y-6) = -4 < 0 ; no graph 1
area of the figure?” ; area of a triangle , (8)(5)( 2 ) = 20 ; are
● ratio of areas of two circles given ratio of radius of a rectangle , (8)(6) = 48 ; 20 + 48 ; 68
or diameter
2 2
if radius a:b ; their area has a ratio of a :b
2 2 G. Surface Area, Perimeter & Volume
if diamter x:y ; their area has a ratio of x :y
ex. “if the ratio of the diamter of circle a to the diameter of ● area
2
circle b is 2:1 and the area of circle a is 4cm , what is the square ; a = s
2

2
area of circle b?” ; 4:1 ; 1cm rectangle ; a = lw
2
circle ; a = πr
1
triangle ; a = 𝑏ℎ
F. Other Shapes 2

● perimeter
● sum of interior angles of a polygon add all sides
the sum of all interior angles of a polygon ; 180(n-2)º ; n = ● cube volume
number of sides of the polygon (x+y)
3

ex. “the sum of all interior angles of a decagon is 2 3 2 2 3 3

ex. (m+3) ; m + 3m (3) + 3(m)3 + 3 ; m + 9n + 27m + 27
2

180(10-2)º” ; 180(8)˚ ; 1440º ● surface area of a cube

● interior angle of a regular polygon 2
a = 6s ; ‘s’ = length of its side
the value of an interior angle of a regular polygon ; 180º - ● surface area of a rectangular prism (cuboid)
360º
𝑛
; n = number of sides of the polygon a = 2(lw+lh+wh) ; ‘l’ = length ; ‘h’ = height ‘ ‘w’ = width
ex. “in a regular decagon, what is the value of each its ● surface area of a sphere
360º 2
interior angle?” ; 180º - 10
; 180º - 36º ; 144º a = 4πr ; ‘r’ = radius

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● surface area of a cylinder
a = 2πr(r+h) ; ‘r’ = radius ; ‘h’ = height
● surface area of a cone
2 2
a = πr(r+ 𝑟 + ℎ ) ; ‘r’ = radius ; ‘h’ = height
● volume of a cube ● trigonometric ratio
3
v = s ; ‘s’ = length of its side ratio of lengths of two sides of a right triangle
● volume of a cube given surface area ratio of sides of a right-angled triangle with respect to any

v=( )
𝑎 𝑎
; ‘a’ = surfae area of its acute angles
6 6

● volume of a rectangular prism (cuboid)

v = lwh ; ‘l’ = length ; ‘w’ = width ; ‘h’ = height
● volume of a rectangular prism (increasing l,w,h)
if the l/w/h is decreased/increased by a factor of x ; same
changes will apply to the volume SOH - CAH - TOA

● volume of a sphere sine sinθ =

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
3
4π𝑟
v= 3
; ‘r’ = radius
cosine cosθ =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
S4π3r3 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

● volume of a cylinder
tangent tanθ =
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
2 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
v = πr h ; ‘r’ = radius ; ‘h’ = height
● voume of a pyramid/cone
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
v= 3

III. Topic 3: Trigonometry

A. Trigonometric Ratios CHO - SHA - CAO

● converting degrees to radians cosecant cscθ =

ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
π
multiply the angle by 180
π 45π π
secant secθ =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒

ex. 45º ; 45 180 ; 180

; 4
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

● converting radians to degrees cotangent cotθ =

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
180
multiply the angle by π
180 360π
ex. 2π ; 2π ; ; 360
π π ex. “determine the three trigonometric ratios of β” ;
● trigonometry
branch of mathematics that deals with the
relationshipbetween the sides and the angles of right
4 3 4
angles ; sinβ = 5
; cosβ = 5
; tanβ = 3
has relationship with others such as logarithms and ● trigonometric ratios of special right triangles or
calculus trigonometric functions
● pyhtagorean theorem gives the length of a side
2 2 2
c =a +b
isosceles right sin 45º =
1
=
2
2 2
(45º = 45º - 90º) 1 2
cos 45º = = 2
2
1
tan 45º = 1
=1

1
sin 30º = 2
theorem ; the sum of its measures is 180 3
cos 30º = 2
corollalry ; its acute angles are complementary 30º - 60º - 90º
1 3
tan 30º = =
● trigonometric notations 3 3

3
sin 60º = 2
1
cos 60º = 2
3
tan 60º = 1
= 3

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1
ex. sin(-30º) ; -sin(30º) ; 2

C. Trigonometric Laws

● law of sine
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
sin = 2
; cos = 2
; tan =
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛(α)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(β)
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ)
5 6
ex. a = 5 , b = 6 , ∠α = 30 ; ∠β = ?? ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(β)
; sin(β)
6𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) -1 3
= 5
; sin ( 5 ) = β ; ∠β = 36.87º
● law of cosine
2
ex. 2cos 45º ; 2 2
; 2
2 3 2 3 1
ex. tan (30) ; ( 3
) ; 9
; 3
1 3 1+ 3
ex. sin 30º + cos 30º ; 2
+ 2
; 2
3 2 1 3 1 2
8( 2 ) −( 2 ) 2 2 2
ex.
8𝑠𝑖𝑛 20º−𝑐𝑜𝑠 60º
2 ; 2
1
; 8( 8 ) -
1
;1-
1
=
3
c = a + b - 2abcos γ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 45º 1 4 4 4
2 2 2
ex. a = 5 , b = 6 , c = 7 ; ∠γ = ?? ; 7 = 5 + 6 - 2(5)(6)cos γ ;
ex. “write the equation to solve for x and isolate x” ;
60𝑐𝑜𝑠 γ 12
49 = 25 + 36 - 60cos γ ; 60 cos γ = 12 ; 60
= 60
; cos γ =
1 -1 1
5
; cos ( 5 ) = γ ; ∠γ = 100º
● cofunction of sin and cos
18 the sine of an angle equals the cosine of its component;
; tan 14º = 𝑥
; xtan 14º
18
sin(s) = cos(90-x) ; cos(x) = sin(90-x)
= 18 ; x = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 14º 1 1
ex. “if sin(30) = ; cos(60) = ??” ; complement ;
● inverse trigonometric functions 2 2

● cofunction of tan and cot

gives the measure oof an angle
-1 the tangent of an angle equals the cotangent of its
sinθ = sin θ ; arcsinθ
-1 complement
cosθ = cos θ ; arcosθ
-1 ex. “express tan(40) in terms of cot” ; 90 - 40 ; cot(50)
tanθ = tan ; arctanθ
1 -1 1 0
● cofunction of sec and csc
ex. inverse sine of ; sin ( 2 ) = 30
2
the secant of an angle equals the cosecant of its
-1 -1
● sin (x) ≠ [sin(x)]
complement
-1 signifies the inverse sine not an exponent
sec(x) = csc(90-x) ; csc(x) = sec(90-x)
a a
● sin (x) = [sin(x)] where ‘a’ is any positive real
ex. “what is the value of sec(80) in terms of cosecant?” ; 90
number
- 80 ; csc(10)
a
if ‘a’ in sin (x) is positive ; it is indeed an exponent
2 2
ex. sin (45) = [sin(45)]
● sin(θ) = x → sin (x) = θ
-1
D. Formulas
1 -1 1
ex. “find x if sin(x) = ; sin ( 2 ) = x ; x = 30
2 ● sum & difference formula

B. Basic Identities

● quotient identities
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
tanϑ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
; cotθ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ

𝑠𝑖𝑛45
2
● double angle formulas
ex. tan(45º) ; tan(45) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠45
; 2
2
;1
2

● trigonometric identities
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1
2 2
tan θ = sec θ - 1
2 2
cot θ = csc θ - 1
2 2
ex. sin (15º) + cos (15º) ; 1 ● half-angle formulas
● even-odd identities
all negative θ are negative sin/tan ; except cos , sec
sin -θ = -sinθ …

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● sum to product formulas

IV. Pre-Calculus
A. Conics & Circles

● double right circular cone

● product to sum formulas

directrix ; perimeter of the base

nappe ; lateral surface of one circular cone
vertex angle ; angle between generator and the axis
● conic section
E. Extra Information intersection of a plane and a cone
curves formed by the intersection of a plane and a double
● application
right circular cone
angles of elevation and depression
depending on the angle made by the plane with the
● cheat sheets
vertical axis of the cone
let a = angle made by the plane to the vertical axis
let b = vertex angle

circle plane intersecting

a cone parallel to
its base or
perpendicular to
the axis ; special
ellipse

parabola plane intersecting

a cone at an angle
parallel to the
slant edge ;
a=b

ellipse a close curve made

from a plane
intersecting a
cone at an angle to
its base ;
a<b

hyperbola plane intersecting

both cones but not
passing through
the vertex ; in
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𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2
equation = ??” ; midpoint formula ; m = ( 2
, 2
);
−3+5 2+(−4) 2 −2
m=( 2
, 2
);( ,
2 2
) ; c(1,-1) ; distance formula ;
2 2
r= (− 3 − 1) + (2 − (− 1)) ; 16 + 9 ; r= 25 ; r = 5 ;
2 2
equation ; (x-1) + (y+1) = 25
● standard to general form of a circle
● degenerate conics
2 2 2 2 2 2
(x-h) + (y-k) = r ; d = -2h ; e = -2k ; f = h + k - r
formed by a plane’s intersection with a double-napped
cone if it passes through the vertex

B. Parabola

● parabola
a set of all points equidistant from a point called focus
and a fixed line called directrix
● conic sections general equation
2 2
ax + bxy + cy + dx + ey + f = 0
a , b , c , d , e , f, = constants ;
b=0
2
solve for b - 4ac

circle a=c axis of symmetry divides the parabola into two equal
2
b - 4ac < 0 halves
vertex is its turning point
ellipse a ≠ c ; same integer
2 latus rectum is a chord that passes through the focus ;
b - 4ac < 0
parallel to the directrix ; endpoints are on the parabola
hyperbola a , c opposite integer ● measurements
2
b - 4ac > 0 ‘a’ ; focal distance ; distance between the focus and the
vertex
parabola a=0,c≠0;a≠0,c=0
2 ‘4a’ ; length of the latus rectum
b - 4ac = 0

2
ex. 3y + 6x - 9 = 0 ; parabola
● circles
2 2 2
standard form ; (x-h) + (y-k) = r
a set of points in the plane that are equidistant from the
center on the plane
2 2 2
center at (0,0) x +y =r

2 2
center at (h,k) (x-h) + (y-k) = r
ex. ; a = 1 ; 4a = 4
● equation of parabolas with vertex at (0,0)
2 2
ex. x + y = 25 ; c(0,0) ; r = 5 2
opens upward x = 4ay
2 2
ex. (x-9) + (y+7) = 5 ; c(9,-7) ; r = 5
2
● general to standard form of circles opens downward x = -4ay
2 2 𝑑 𝑒
tok ; x + y + dx + ey + f = 0 ; h = - 2 ; k = - 2 ; r = 2
opens to the right y = 4ax
2 2
ℎ +𝑘 − 𝑓
2
opens to the left y = -4ax
group together terms with the same variable
complete the square
factor the left side and simplify the right side
2 2 2 2 2
ex. x + y + 12x - 2y - 7 = 0 ; x + 12 + y - 2y = 7 ; x + 12 + 36
2 2 2
+ y - 2y + 1 = 7 + 36 + 1 ; (x+6) + (y-1) = 44 ; c(-6,1) ; r = 44
; (4)(11) ; r = 2 11
ex. c(-3,2) , passes through (-5,-1) ; distance formula ; r =
● focus, vertex, equation
2 2
(− 5 − (− 3)) + (− 1 − 2) ; r = 4+9 ; r = 13 ;
2 2
(x+3) + (y-2) = 13
ex. “the endpoints of the diameter are (-3,2) (5,-4) ,

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C. Ellipse

● ellipse
a set of all points in a plane whose sum of the distances
from two fixed points called foci f1 , f2 is a constant
ex. ; vertex = (0,0) ; focus = (-2,0) ; a =
2 2
2 ; 4a = 8 ; equation , y = -4ax ; substitute 4a ; y = -8x
● directrix and aos
axis of symmtery ; y-axis
directrix ; line passing through -1 in the y-axis
an ellipse has two axes of symmetry ; these intersect at the
center of the ellipse
the major axis is the longer axis ; it intersects the ellipse
at the vertices ; the foci lies on it

ex. ; equation of directrix ; x = 2 ; the minor axis is the shorter axis ; it intersect the ellipse

equation of axis of symmetry ; y = 0 at the co-vertices

● determining properties from the equation ● ellipse measures

2
ex. “a parabola has the equation x = -8y” ; opening ,
downward ; aos , x = 0 ; lr (or 4a) = 8 ; fd (or a) = 2 ;

a>b
‘a’ ; distance from the center to the vertex
; vertex = (0,0) ; focus = (0,-2) ; ‘b’ ; distance from the center to the co-vertex
directrix , y = 2 ‘c’ ; distances from the center to the focus
● translation of a parabola ● ellipse properties
moving tha parabola from one position to another without
changing its orientation or dimensions
occurs when the value of h and k are changed ; a is
unchanged
increase h - right ; increase k - upward length of the major axis ; 2a
length of the minor axis ; 2b
length of the segment whose endpoints are the foci ; 2c

distance from f1 + distance from f2 ; 2a ; constant for every

point on the ellipse

● equation of parabolas with vertex at (h,k)

the sum of each pair ; 2a

length of each segment ; a

by the pythagorean theorem ;

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
c =a -b ;a =b +c ;c= 𝑎 −𝑏
2 2
distance of a focus from the center ; c = 𝑎 −𝑏
getting the foci ;

horizontal ellipse vertical ellipse

(h-c,k) , (h+c,k) (h,k-c) , (h,k+c)

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D. Hyperbola

● hyperbola
formed by the intersection of a plane with a
2 2
ex. ;a=4;b=2;c= 𝑎 −𝑏 ; double-napped cone
2 2
4 − 2 ; 16 − 4 ; 12 ; (4)(3) ; c = 2 3
● horizontal ellipse

center (0,0)
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
2 + 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

a>b

a set of points the difference of whose distances from two

center (h,k)
2 2
(𝑥−ℎ) (𝑦−𝑘)
2 + 2 =1 fixed points (foci) is a constant
𝑎 𝑏

a>b

● vertical ellipse

center (0,0)
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
2 + 2 =1
𝑏 𝑎

a>b
for any point p ; |d1-d2| is always the same ; |d1-d2| = |d3-d4|
● parts of a hyperbola

center (h,k)
2 2
(𝑥−ℎ) (𝑦−𝑘)
2 + 2 =1
𝑏 𝑎

a>b

it has two branches

the asymptotes are not part of its graph
● equation of ellipse (examples)

ex. ; center (0,0) ; kind , horizontal ; a it has two axes of symmetry intersecting at the center

2 2 2 2 its axes are line segments

= 5 ; b = 2;c= 𝑎 −𝑏 ; 5 − 2 ; 25 − 4 ; c = 21 ;
foci , (- 21,0) , ( 21,0) ; vertices , (-5,0) , (5,0) ; co-vertices,
(0,2) , (0,-2) ; length of major axis 2a , 2(5) = 10 ; length of
2 2
minor axis 2b , 2(2) = 4 ; equation , 𝑥
2 +
𝑦
2 =1 ;
𝑎 𝑏
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
25 4

● graphing the transverse axis is the segment that ends at the vertices
if the transverse axis is extended on both ends ; it passes
through the foci

blue ; take the square root and since it is under x ;

2 ● measures of a hyperbola

movement is left/right
2
green ; take the square root and since it is under y ;
movement is up/down

2 2 2
c =a +b
ex. ; center (0,0) ; kind , horizontal
length of the transverse axis ; 2a
2 2
; a = 8 ; b=5;c= 8 − 5 ; 64 − 25 ; c = 39 ; major length of the conjugate axis ; 2b
axis 2a , 2(8) = 16 ; minor axis 2b , 2(5) = 10 ; vertices , (-8,0) distance between the two foci ; 2c
, (8,0) l co-vertices , (0,5) , (0,-5) ; foci (- 39,0) , ( 39,0)

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ex. ; “determine abc and the length

of the conjugate axis” ;

step 1 determine the lengths from the graph

transverse axis ; 2a ; a = 4
distance between the foci ; 2c ; c = 5 ex. ; “determine the equation” ;

step 2 step 1 determine a and b

use pythagorean theorem

2 2
a=4;c=5;b=3
2 2 2 2 2 2
c = a + b ; determine b ; b = c - a ; b = (5) − (4) ;
25 − 16 ; b = 9 ; b = 3 step 2 equation of form

step 3 find missing length 2

𝑥 𝑦
2

2 − 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

length of the conjugate axis ; 2b = 2(3) ; 6

step 3 final equation

2 2 2 2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
2 − 2 = 1; 16
− 9
=1
4 3

in finding properties and equation of hyperbola, refer to

the square

ex. ; “determine abc and the distance

between the foci” ; transverse axis ; 2a ; a = 3 ; conjugate
2 2 2 2
axis ; 2b ; b = 1 ; c = a + b ; c = 3 +1 ; 9 + 1 ;c=
10 ; distance between foci ; 2c = 2 10
● standard equation of a hyperbola center at (0,0) ex. ; “determine the equation” ; a = 3 , b = 1
2 2 2 2

horizontal 𝑥
2
𝑦
2
; (𝑦−𝑘)
−
(𝑥−ℎ)
=1 ;
(𝑦−1)
−
(𝑥−(−2))
=1 ;
2 − 2 = 1; 𝑎
2
𝑏
2 2
3 1
2

𝑎 𝑏
(positive term is (𝑦−1)
2
2
2
positive term has 9
− (𝑥 + 2) = 1
x) 2
denominator a ; ● determining properties and sketching the graph from a
negative term has given equation
2
denominator b
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
ex. 16
− 9
= 1 ; “determine the orientation, center, transverse
axis, conjugate axis, distance between foci” ;
vertical
2 2
𝑦 𝑥
2 − 2 =1
(positive term is y )
2 𝑎 𝑏
step 1 orientation

2 2
𝑥 𝑦 2
16
− 9
= 1 ; positive term is x ; horizontal hyperbola and
transverse axis

step 2 center
● standard equation of a hyperbola center at (h,k)
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
− = 1 ; no numbers besides x and y, center is at origin ;
horizontal
2 2
(𝑥−ℎ) (𝑦−𝑘) 16 9
− =1
center (0,0)
2 2
𝑎 𝑏

step 3 a,b,c (always +)

2 2
𝑥 𝑦 2
16
− 9
= 1 ; a = 16 ; a = 16 ; a = 4
2
vertical (𝑦−𝑘)
2
(𝑥−ℎ)
2
b =9;𝑏 = 9;b=3
2 − 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏 2 2
c = 16 + 9 ; c = 25 ; c = 25 ; c = 5

step 4 distance and lengths (always +)

a=4,b=3,c=5
transverse axis ; 2a ; 2(4) = 8
conjugate axis ; 2b ; 2(3) = 6

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distance between foci ; 2c ; 2(5) = 10

the determinant of is ad - bc
● determinant of 3x3 matrix
● transforming and translating a hyperbola
2 2
ex. x - 4y - 2x - 8y - 7 = 0 ;
2 2 2 2
standard farm ; (x -2x) + (-4y -8y) = 7 ; (x -2x) - 4(y +2y) = 7 ; the determinant of is aei + bfg + cdh -
2 2 2 2
(x -2x+1) - 4(y +2y+1) = 7 + 1 - 4(1) ; (x-1) - 4(y+1) = 4 ; (ceg+bdi+afh)
2 2 2
(𝑥−1) 4(𝑦+1) 4 (𝑥−1) 2
4
− 4
= 4
; 4
− (𝑦 + 1) = 1 ;
“if it is translated 5 units to the left and 4 units up, what is
the equation?” ; h = +1 , h = -4 ; k = -1 , k = +3 ;
2
(𝑥+4) 2
4
− (𝑦 − 3) = 1 ;
● hyperbolic paraboloid F. Vector
shaped like a saddle ● vector
a list of numbers that can be in a row or column
a quantity that has both magnitude and direction
commonly represented as an arrow ; length = magnitude ;
direction = direction

● representations of a vector

E. Matrix

● matrix
a collection of numbers that is arranged in rows ang
in this case, vector ν can be represented by ;
columns
● dimension of a matrix
represented by “number of row x number of column” ν= ; ν = (4,3) ; ν = <4,3> ; ν = 4 𝑖 + 3 𝑗
● unit vectors

ex. “what is the dimension of the matrix ?” ; 3x2 these are vectors with magnitude value of one unit

● elements of a matrix 𝑖 = one unit vector along the x-axis

each element of a matrix can be indexed by xr,c 𝑗 = one unit vector along the y-axis
‘r’ = rth row ; ‘c’ = cth column
𝑘 = one unit vector along the z-axis
● zero matrix
● scalar times vector
zero matrices have zero as the value of all their elements
a scalar is a quantity with magnitude only (ex. 5)
● adding/subtracting matrices
multiplying a scalar to a vector scales up/down the length
add the corresponding entries
of the vector
you can only add matrices that have the same dimension
often, unit vectors are multiplied by scalars

ex. 4 𝑖 ; vector 𝑖 ’s length is multiplied 4 times

ex. “evaluate + ; add ;
● multiplying matrix by scalar numbers
multiply the scalar number or constant to each entry of
the matrix ● vector addition (algebraic)

ex. “evaluate 6 ” ; multiply ;

● multiplying matrices
ex. -3 𝑖 - 2 𝑗 + 13 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 ; 10 𝑖 + 𝑗
x = ● vector addition (geometric)

ex. “evaluate x ” ; multiply ; given ;

; add ; goal ;
● determinant of a 2x2 matrix
step 1 connect the initial pointof any vector to the
terminal point of the other vector

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step 2 connect the initial point of the 1st vector to the

terminal point of the 2nd vector

algebraic ;

geometric ; magnitude ;
● vector subtraction (geometric)
ex. “find the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors
given ;
having a magnitude of 4 and 5, and forms an angle of 60º”
goal ;
; (4)(5)sin 60º ; 10 3
● cross product (direction)
step 1 >
flip 𝑏 to get its negative the direction of the resulting vector of a cross product is
always perpendicular to both the two initial vectors
use screw rule to know which side it is ;
imagine rotating the 1st vector towards the 2nd vector ;
clockwise - into the page ⊗
step 2 apply vector addition counter-clockwise - out of the page ⊙
> >
ex. “find the direction of the resulting vector” ; 𝑎 x 𝑏 ;

> >
;𝑏 x𝑎 ;

>
● magnitude of a vector |𝑣 |
G. Trigonometry in Calculus
1d ; -3 𝑖 absolute value ;
● angles
|-3| = 3
an angle generated by a ray rotating about its endpoint

2d ; -3 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 pythagorean theorem ; positive angle ; counter clockwise rotation

2 2
(− 3) + 3 = 3 2

3d ; -3 𝑖 + 3 𝑗 - 2𝑘 pythagorean theorem ;
2 2 2
(− 3) + 3 + (− 2) = 22 negative angle ; clockwise rotation

ex. “what is the magnitude of 𝑖 + 𝑗 - 𝑘?” ; 3

> >
● dot product 𝑎 • 𝑏
the result of a dot product is a scalar ● measuring angles

revolution 1 complete turn ;

360 degrees

degree measure amount of rotation ex.

from the initial
algebraic ; side to the
terminal side

one degree is
geometric ;
equivalent to a
ex. “find the dot product of two vectors having a
rotation of 1/360
magnitude of 4 and 5, and forms an angle of 60º” ;
of one revolution ;
(4)(5)cos 60º ; 10
> >
● cross product 𝑎 x 𝑏

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one radian if the arc length =

radius ; the angle
is one radian
● quadrantal angles
angles whose terminal sides lie on the x- or y-axis

radian measure θ=
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
; the
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

ratio of the arc

length and the
radius of the circle

ex. 0º , 90º , 180º , 270º , 360º , -90º , -180º , -540º

radian measure c = 2πr ; shows r
π 3π π 5π
and circumference can be laid off 2π ex. 0 , 2
,π, 2
, 2π , - 2 , -π , - 2

times around a ● sketching the angle in standard position

circle

degree and radian one radian is

measure bigger than one
degree ;
πradians = 180º ;
π𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 180º
ex.
= ;
π π
sketching the graph of an angle in radian measure ;
1 rad =
180º
= 57. 3º step 1 always divide the denominator by 2
3.1416

7
12
; 12 / 2 = 6
● converting from degrees to radians
*base on trigonometry part* step 2 assign the result to each quadrant

● quadrant

step 3 add up the number in each quadrant until the

numerator is achieved;
positive - start from q1 ; negative - start from q4 ;
the terminal side of the angle should be drawn

ex. “where does the terminal side of the angle 24º lie?” ;
180º < 240º < 270º ; 240º is in quadrant III

−4
3
π radians ;

● unit circle
a circle with a radius of 1
used to find trigonometric ratios of angles between 0º and
360º

3π
ex. “where does the terminal side of the angle 4
lie?” ;
π 3π 3π
2
< 4
< π; 4
is in quadrant II
● angles in standard position
if the vertex is at the origin and the initial side is on the
positive x-axis side

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1
sin 150º = +/- ? ; sin 30º = +/- ? 2

● special angles (all quadrants)

ex. sin 150º ; sine is + in q2

ex. cos 225º ; cos is - in q3
ex. tan 300º ; tan is - in q4
1
ex. sin 30º ; 𝑦 = 2 ex.
2
ex. cos 135º ; 𝑥 =− 2
step 1 find the reference angle
2
𝑦
ex. tan 315º ; 𝑥
= 2
− 2
= -1
2 formula for q2 ; sin 150º ; reference angle = 30º
● recall: finding trigonometric ratios of special
angles (non-quadrantals) step 2 use left hand technique

quadrant 1 special angles ; 1

sin 30º = 2

step 3 the sign depends on the quadrant

1
sin 150º = +/- ? ; sin 30º = +/- ? 2

step 4 find the sign (all students take calculus)

sin =
1
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
; cos =
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤
; tan =
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 sine is + in q2 ; sin 150º = 2
2 2 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤

● quadrantals
there is no reference angle for the quadrantals
there are only 4 positions

quadrants 2-4 special angles ;

the trigonometric ratio depends on the reference angle
and the quadrant on the point ; x-coordinate is 1 because it is 1 unit to the
right of the origin ; y-coordinate is 0

cos θ = 𝑥
sin θ = 𝑦
𝑦
tan θ = 𝑥

ex. find sin 360º ; locate ; 360º is a quadrantal that has a

step 1 find the reference angle
terminal side at (1,0) ; use formula sinθ = 𝑦 ; sin 360º = y ;
formula for q2 ; sin 150º ; reference angle = 30º y = 0 ; sin 360º = 0
ex. find cos 270º ; locate ; 270º is a quadrantal that has a
step 2 use left hand technique
terminal side at (0,-1) ; use formula cosθ = 𝑥 ; cos 270º = x

sin 30º =
1 ; x = 0 ; cos 270º = 0
2
ex. find tan 270º ; locate ; 270º is a quadrantal that has a
step 3 the sign depends on the quadrant terminal side at (0,-1) ; use formula tanθ =
𝑦
;
−1
; tan
𝑥 0

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270º is undefined
amplitude maximum height
● periodic function (a) of the wave from
graphs of functions that repeat shapes the midline ; it is
includes trigonometric functions or circular functions half the distance
between the min f(x) = a sin x ;
such as sine and cosine
and max values f(x) = a cos x ;
● recalling unit circle
with a bounded amplitude = |a| ;
given a point (x,y) on a unit circle ; the sine of the angle = y 𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑚𝑖𝑛
range a= 2
; the cosine of the angle = x
y = sinx ; cycle based on interval
[0,2π] ; how many
curves needed in
order to cover the
graph from 0 to 2π

frequency number of cycles f(x) = a sin bx ;

(b) that occure per f(x) = a cos bx ;
unit of time or amplitude = |a| ;
distance ; usually frequency = b
over interval [0,2π]

period length of one cycle period =

2π
;
𝑏
; distance between frequency = b
two peaks ;
distance it takes
for the entire
graph to repeat

y = cosx

𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑚𝑖𝑛 4−(−6) 10
ex. ;a= 2
; 2
; 2
;a=
5

ex. ;b=2
ex. “determine the amplitude and frequency” ; y = 3sin(2x) ;
amplitude = 3 ; frequency = 2

ex. ; frequency = 2 ; period ; 2π

2
;
period = π

● properties of sine and cosine functions

periodic functions with a period ; 2π

domain ; {x|xϵ|𝑅} ; (-∞, ex.
range ; {y|-1≤y≤1} ; [-1.1]
maximum value - 1 ; minimum value - (-1)

ex.

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● understanding other properties ex. cotθ secθ ;
𝑐0𝑠θ
𝑥
1
;
1
or cscθ
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
f(x) = sinx ; 2
ex. cosθ (1+tan θ) ; cosθ sec θ ; cosθ x
2 1
;
1
or secθ
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

● alternate versions of original identities

2
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 2 2 2 2
use pythagoren identity ; 2 ; (cos θ = 1 - sin θ) , (cot θ = csc θ
𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ−1

- 1)
f(x) = cosx

ex.

ex. g(x) = 2 sinx ;

H. Limit

ex. g(x) =
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ; ● limits
2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 ; “‘f(x)’ approaches ‘l’ as ‘x’ approaches ‘a’”
𝑥→𝑎

to find l ; substitute ‘a’ to all ‘x’ in f(x) ; final answer is real

number
ex. lim 𝑥 + 2 ; 3 + 2 ; 5
𝑥→3
𝑥 3
ex. lim 2 − 𝑥 ; 2 - 3 ; 8 - 3 ; 5
𝑥→3
● graphs of sinx and tanx
● limits vs functions
lim 𝑓(𝑥) is not always equal to f(a)
𝑥→𝑎

the limit gives the number ‘l’ to which the graph of a

function approaches to ;

at the point of intersection are they only equal we test the points near ‘a’, not exactly at ‘a’ ;
sinx = tanx ; conditional equation is only true for some x-values while for the value of f(a), we only look at ‘a’ and see where
● graphs of sinx/cos and tanx the point lies exactly at that point

ex. ; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ; while ; f(4) = 3

𝑥→4

they intersect at all points and are always equal ● limits in the form 0/0 (first approach)
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑥 −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ; an identity that is true for all x-values lim 𝑥+1
𝑥 → −1
● identities
substituting -1 to all x would give 0/0 ;
reciprocal quotient pythagorean factor both numerator and denominator then simplify
2
𝑥 −1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
𝑐𝑠𝑐θ =
1
; 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
;
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1 ex. “evaluate lim 𝑥+1
” ; lim 𝑥+1
; lim x - 1 ; -1
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1
sinθ ≠ 0 cosθ ≠ 0
- 1 ; -2
2 2 ● limits in the form 0/0 (second approach)
𝑠𝑒𝑐θ =
1
; 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ =
𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
; 1 + tan θ = sec θ
𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
𝑥−2
cosθ ≠ 0 sinθ ≠ 0 lim 2
𝑥 → 4 𝑥 −3𝑥−4

2 2 substituting 2 to all x would give 0/0 ;

𝑐𝑜𝑡θ =
1
; 1 + cot θ = csc θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ
if there are radicals in the function, multiply first both
tanθ ≠ 0
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
radical before substituting ‘a’ to ‘x’
● simplifying trigonometric expressions/equations
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥+2
substitute and simplify ex. “evaluate lim 2 ” ; lim 2 ( ) ;
𝑥 −3𝑥−4 𝑥 −3𝑥−4 𝑥+2
𝑥→4 𝑥→4

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𝑥−4 1 1 1 ∞ 0 0 ∞ 0
lim ; lim ; (5)(4)
; 20
0•∞;∞-∞; ∞
; 0
;0 ;1 ;∞
(𝑥−4)(𝑥+1)( 𝑥+2) (𝑥+1)( 𝑥+2)
𝑥→4 𝑥→4

● one-sided limits
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 ; “f(x) approaches ‘l’ as ‘x’ approaches ‘a’ I. Derivatives
+
𝑥→𝑎

from its right” ● derivatives

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 ; “f(x) approaches ‘l’ as ‘x’ approaches ‘a’ it gives the slope of a function in terms of ‘x’
−
𝑥→𝑎

from its left” it determines how fast a rate of change is

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
“the derivative of f(x)” ; 𝑑𝑥
; 𝑑𝑥
; f’(x) ; y’ ; dx[f(x)]
formal equation/definition ;
ex. “evaluate lim 𝑓(𝑥)” ; ; “the limit as x 𝑑𝑦
= lim
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→4
− 𝑑𝑥 ℎ
∆𝑥 → 0
approaches 4 from the left” ; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 ●
x
derivatives of ‘e ’ and ‘a ’ where ‘a’ is constant
x
−
𝑥→4
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝑥
● limits in graphs 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 =𝑒 ; 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 • 𝑙𝑛 𝑎 ; ‘a’ = constant
x x
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 ; if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 ex. “what is the derivative of 4 ?” ; 4 (ln4)
+ −
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
● derivatives of ‘ln x’ and ‘loga x’ where ‘a’ is
“ lim 𝑓(𝑥) will only eist if the two one-sided limits at that
𝑥→𝑎 constant
particular point ‘a’ exists and are equal” 𝑑
loga x =
1
;
𝑑
ln x =
1
; ‘a’ = constant
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1
ex. “what is the derivative of log2 x?” ; 𝑥𝑙𝑛 2

● derivatives of trigonometric functions

ex. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ; ;
− + 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
𝑑𝑥
sin x = cos x ; 𝑑𝑥
cos x = -sin x ; 𝑑𝑥
tan = sec x
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→4
+ ex. “what is the derivative of -sinx?” ; -cosx
● derivatives of reciprocal trigonometric functions
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑥
sec x = tan x sec x ; 𝑑𝑥
csc x = -cot x csc x ; 𝑑𝑥
cot = -csc
ex. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 5 , lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 ; ;
𝑥→4
−
𝑥→4
+ x
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 does not exist ex. “what is the derivative of -cscx?” ; -cotx • cscx
+
𝑥→4
● power rule
● infinite limits 𝑑 n n-1
𝑑𝑥
x = nx
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ± ∞
+ 2 𝑑 2 2-1 𝑑 2 1
𝑥→𝑎 ex. “what is the derivative of x ?” ; 𝑑𝑥
x = 2x ; 𝑑𝑥
x = 2x ;
when substituting ‘a’ to ‘x’ and the numerator results to a
2x
real number and the denominator results to 0 ; the answer
● sum rule
is either +∞ or -∞ 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(f(x)+g(x)) = f’(x) + g’(x)
2𝑥 4
ex. lim ; + ; +∞ 3 3 1/2
𝑥→2
+ 𝑥−2 0 ex. “what is the derivative of x - 𝑥?” ; dx[x -x ] ;
+
0 ; x - 2 approaches 0 from its positive values or from the 3x -
2 1
𝑥
−1
2 ; 3x -
2 1
2 2 𝑥
right as ‘x’ approaches 2 from the right
● product rule
infinity is not a number ; does not exist 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(f(x)•g(x)) = f’(x) g(x) + f(x) g’(x)
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞
𝑥 “right de-left + left de-right”
2 2 2
● limits when the denominator approach infinity ex. “what is the derivative of (x )(ln x)?” ; dx[x ] • ln x +x • dx
2
lim
𝑎
= 0 ; ‘a’ = constant [ln x] ; 2x • lnx + x /x ; 2x • ln x + x
𝑥
𝑥 → ±∞
● quotient rule
● limits at infinity 𝑑 𝑓'(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔'(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
(f(x)•g(x)) = 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥 → ±∞ 𝑥
34 33 𝑥
34𝑥 (𝑒 )−𝑥 (𝑒 )
34 𝑥
ex. “what is the derivative of ?” ; ;
operating a non-zero real number to ± ∞ results to ± ∞
𝑥 2𝑥
𝑒 𝑒

however, 0 • ∞ , ∞ - ∞ are both indeterminate ; there might simplify not necessary

still be an answer ● chain rule

𝑑 𝑑𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)
ex. lim 2𝑥 − 3 = 2(+ ∞) − 3 ; +∞ ; lim
2
=
2
; 𝑑𝑥
f(g(x)) = 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)
• 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥−4 −∞
𝑥 → +∞ 𝑥 → −∞ 2 2
ex. “what is the derivative of ln(x )?” ; derive ln(x ) in terms
0 2 2 𝑑𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 1
of x ; treat ‘x ’ as the new ‘x’ in deriving ; • ;
7 types of indeterminate forms in limits 𝑑𝑔(𝑥) 2
● 𝑥

an expression involving two functions whose limit cannot treat the ‘x’ as the ‘x’ in deriving then multiply ;
𝑑𝑔(𝑥) 2 1 2
be determined solely from the limits of the individual 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 ; dx[ln(x ) = 2 • 2𝑥 ; 𝑥
𝑥
functions
an indeterminate expression might still be equal to a real
number

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J. Continuity
gaspard monge descriptive geometry
● continuity
a function ‘f’ is said to be continuous at x = a if; emmy noether modern algebra

f(a) exists
henri poincare algebraic topology
lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑎
karl weiestrass analysis
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) ; otherwise, discontinuous function
𝑥→𝑎
2
𝑥 −1 8
ex. “is f(x) = 𝑥+3
continuous at x = 3?” ; f(3) = 4
= 2 ;
2
3 −1 8
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = = = 2 ; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(3) ; f(x) is
𝑥→3
3+3 4
𝑥→3 V. Statistics and Probability (use tok, gr 10, gr 11
continuous at x = 3 notes)
● removable discontinuity
- Statistics
a function ‘f’ has a removable discontinuity at x = a if ;
- Factorials
lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑎 - Fundamental Principles of Counting
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎) - Permutation
𝑥→𝑎

● jump essential discontinuity - Combination

a function ‘f’ has a jump essential discontinuity at x =a if ; - Probability
lim 𝑓(𝑥) , lim 𝑓(𝑥) both exist - Compound Probability
− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥) - Measures of Central Tendencies

− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
- Measures of Variability
● infinite essential discontinuity
- Random Variable
a function ‘f’ has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = a
if ; - Standard Random Variable
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ± ∞ ; or ; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ± ∞ - Sample Distribution
− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
- Estimation of Parameters
- Hypothesis Testing
K. Integral - Business Math
● integrals
the opposite of derivatives
2
ex. the integral of 2x ; x + c
1
ex. the integral of 𝑥
; lnx + c
‘+c” = indefinite integrals ; ‘c’ = constants
integrals are used to compute for areas and volumes of
figures with curves
“the intergal of f(x)” ; represented as definite integral
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ; represented as indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

L. Fathers of Mathematics

euclid geometry

rene descartes analytic geometry

hipparchus trigonometry

pythagoras number theory

isaac newton calculus

muhammad al-khwarizmi algebra

alan turing computer science

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