3.

Drying of Solids by Thermal Vaporisation

The drying of solids is usually the final step in the processing of solid materials. As much liquid
as possible is removed mechanically (this is the cheapest method) before the material is fed to
a heated dryer.
3.1 Types of dryer
A multitude of different types of dryers is available because of:

(a) Many different forms of solids – granules, powders, crystals, slabs, continuous sheets.
(b) The liquid to be evaporated may be on the surface (e.g., with crystals) or inside the solid
(e.g., with polymer sheets) or both
(c) The final dry product may be strong or delicate and may or may not be stable in a hot
environment

Classification of the dryers tends to be difficult; some may operate:

(a) continuously or batch-wise
(b) with or without the agitation of the food
(c) with or without operation under vacuum to reduce drying temperatures

However, a major division can be made between:

(a) adiabatic (or direct) dryers
In this type of dryer, the solids are directly exposed to a hot gas (usually air)
(i) gas is brown across the surface of the solids – cross circulation drying
(ii) gas is blown through the bed of solids which are supported on a screen – through circulation
drying
(iii) down-ward showering of particles through a gas stream
(iv) fluidized bed dryer (particles stay in the bed)
(v) entrainment of particles in a high velocity gas stream (particles move upwards).

(b) Non-adiabatic (or in-direct) dryers.

In this class of dryer, the only gas involved is the vaporised liquid and heat is transferred to the
solids via:
(i) a heated metal surface in contact with the solids (the surface is heated by condensing steam
or electric coils etc).
(ii) radiant or micro-wave energy.

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The solids are wither spread on a heated surface, or moved over the surface by an agitator, or
a screw or paddle conveyor, or by motion in a rotary dryer.

3.2 Adiabatic drying in a cross-circulation dryer.

3.2.1 Rates of evaporation of liquid
The rate at which the liquid can be removed from the material has normally to be determined
by experiment.
Hence, batch experiments are performed in which a sample of wet material is exposed to a
current of gas at constant temperature and humidity and the change in the material’s liquid
content w (kg of liquid/kg of bone-dry material) varies as a function of time, t.

• AB: initial heating; B→C: constant rate;

• C→D: first falling rate

• D→w*: second falling rate

f ( w, H , H w ) , where H w is the wet-bulb humidity. The experimental

dw
We would expect − =
dt
data shows two areas of interest:

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(i) The constant rate period.
For material with a liquid content higher that w c (the critical liquid content), the drying rate is
independent of w (B→C). This situation occurs when the liquid content is sufficiently large for
the surface of the material to be completely wetted and thus the surface will be at the wet bulb
temperature of the gas.
Remember that the wet bulb temperature Tw will be less that TG because of the need to supply
enthalpy to vaporise the liquid.
The rate of drying is defined as (in kg water/ kg solids m2. s):
1 dw
Nw = −
aw dt

where a w is the area for the mass transfer per kg of bone-dry material (exposed area)
By direct analogy with the problem of the wet bub thermometer, the mass flux (kg m-2 s-1) will
be given by.

Nw k † ( H * − H )
=

and the total rate of loss of liquid (expressed as per kg of bone-dry material) in the constant-
rate region will be

= k † aw ( H W − H ) = k † aw ∆H = f ( ∆H ) only
dw
−
dt
k†a w can be found either experimentally or from correlations.

Also, at steady state, heat supplied = heat used for vaporisation

dw Uaw (T − T )
W

q = λ Nw ⇒− =
dt λ

Note: The dry rate should be constant as long as the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The wet surface is water-saturated (i.e., behaves like the surface of pure water).
2. The air temperature, humidity, and velocity are kept constant.
3. Heat is transferred to the wet surface only by convection from the drying air.

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(ii) The falling-rate period
When the liquid content is below the critical liquid content, there is insufficient liquid to
completely wet the surface of the material and the material may not now be at temperature Tw.
The rate of migration of liquid through the solid to the surface is the controlling mechanism
and the drying rate will be a function of both w and ∆H.
Note: the critical liquid content w c is not an intrinsic property of the material being dried but
varies with the thickness of the sample and the rate at which it is being dried.

Typical experimental results from experiments conducted at various imposed values of ∆H.

In some cases, simplified empirical equations of the following forms have been found to
describe the data with sufficient accuracy.

dw
e.g. − αw
= during the falling rate period w < w c
dt
dw
or − =γ w∆H during the falling rate period w < w c
dt
dw
or − β H
=∆ during the constant rate period w > w c
dt

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3.2.2 Calculation of drying times
In marked contrast to heat exchangers and gas absorbers, where counter-current operation is
always the most efficient, the optimal directions of flows in a dryer may be co-current or split
flow.

If the material stays in constant rate period, the drying time is independent of direction of
flow because the driving force for drying is independent of the wetness of the material.

3.2.2.1 Drying data in analytical form

Consider a thin cloth with a drying rate

dw
− =10∆H h −1 in constant rate period
dt
dw
− =0.5w h −1 in the falling rate period
dt

is to be dried from a wet content of 0.9 kg water/kg bone-dry material to 0.1 kg/kg in a counter-
current adiabatic dryer. Air is provided at 50 oC with a wet bulb temperature of 21 oC. Calculate
the drying time if the air flow rate is 1.2 x the minimum value.

Solution:

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 kg of bone-dry air
Air flow rate = m (i.e. constant throughout the dryer)
kg bone-dry solid feed

(1) Overall mass balance on water: basis of 1 kg of bone-dry material

m ( H1 − H 2 ) =w1 − w2

The H of the air increases as it moves through the dryer, but tis adiabatic process results in its
adiabatic saturation temperature, T 1 S remaining constant.
For air-water systems, wet bulb and adiabatic systems overlap, hence the wet bulb temperature
of the are remains at its inlet value. Tw= 21 oC

• Find H 2 from chart [T 2 = 50 oC; Tw = 21oC] ⇒ H2 =

0.0036 kg/kg
⇒ Hw =
0.0156 kg/kg

• For minimum air flow rate, m min , the outlet air is in equilibrium with the incoming
material, i.e., saturated.

⇒ H1 = H w = 0.0156 kg/kg

w1 − w2 0.9 − 0.1
⇒ mmin
= = = 66.7 kg/kg
H1 − H 2 0.0156 − 0.0036

Hence actual air flow= =

rate: m 1.2 x 66.7 80 kg/kg

(2) Mass balance around cross-section A:

m ( H − H2 ) =w − w2

And since the wet bulb humidity is constant (for an air/water system)

m ( H − H w ) − ( H 2 − H w )  =w − w2

⇒ m [ ∆H 2 − ∆H ]= w − w2

where ∆H = H w − H and ∆H 2 = H w − H 2 = 0.0156 − 0.0036 = 0.012 kg/kg

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 1
⇒ ∆H = ∆H 2 − ( w − w2 )
m

1
⇒=
∆H 0.012 − ( w − 0.01)
80
⇒
= ∆H 0.01325 − 0.0125w

[i.e. an operating line linking ∆H to w at any point in the dryer].

The critical water content, w c is found at the intersection of the constant and falling rate
periods
dw
• At w c , − = 10∆H = 0.5w
dt

⇒ 0.5wc = 0.1325 − 0.125wc ⇒ wc =

0.212 kg/kg

The drying material will first be in constant rate period and then in the falling rate period.

• Total drying time = time in constant rate period + time in falling rate period

During the constant rate period

dw
− = 10∆H = 0.1325 − 0.125w
dt

The time the material spends in the constant rate period (material inlet → w c )
wc 0.212 1
=
tconst ∫=
dt
wi ∫0.9 0.125w − 0.1325
=dw 13.3 hr

In falling rate period (w c → material outlet)

dw
− =
0.5w
dt
w2 0.1 1
∫wc dt =
tfall = −∫
0.212 0.5w
dw =
1.5 hr

Hence, total drying time = 1.5 +13.3 = 14.8 hr

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Additional points
(1) Co-current systems

• The operating line will be different

Mass balance over control surface:

mH + w= mH 2 + w2

m ( H 2 − H ) =w − w2

 w − w2 
∆H =∆H 2 +  
 m 

Otherwise, follow the same procedure.

2) The dry-bulb temperature of the air at any point along the dryer can be read off from the
adiabatic line at the appropriate value of H. e.g. exit air (H = 0.0136 kg/kg) will be at 25.5 oC.

3) In a continuous dryer, the rate of drying is not constant in the constant rate period because
∆H varies along the dryer
dw
− α H
=∆
dt
4) To find final liquid content w 2 knowing total drying time needs a trial-and-error solution.
Limits on integrals are not known.
5) Ensure that the batch drying data is performed under the same mechanical conditions as in
a real dryer.

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3.2.2.2 Use of graphical drying data

• Outline of procedure for counter-current system

1
Operating line: ∆H =∆H 2 − ( w − w2 )
m

For each of the values of ∆H pertaining to a line on the chart, calculate the value of w using
the operating line equation.
dw
For each value of w, use the chart with the line of relevant ∆H to read off − for that point
dt
in the dryer

dt w2 dt
Plot −
dw
vs w and integrate graphically to find the total drying time=
t ∫
w1
−
dw
dw

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