MODULE 7

DRYING PROCESSESS

INTRODUCTION

This lesson deals with the drying process in air conditioning. Definitions and useful information
about dryer and drying processes are presented in this lesson. The discussion includes the general types
of dryers and schematic and psychrometric diagrams of drying processes. Illustrative problems are
included for applications.

At the end of the lesson, problems are provided for the students to further enhance their
learning process in solving problems.

LESSON OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students will able to:

1. Differentiate drying process from dewatering process;

2. Define terms involving drying processes;
3. Enumerate and differentiate the three general types of dryers;
4. Draw the schematic and psychrometric diagrams of drying processes involving the air
conditioning applications; and
5. Solve problems in drying processes provided at the end of the lesson.

A. DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION

→ Drying is the process of removing moisture in varying amounts from solid or semi-fluid
materials. This process may be accomplished by pressure, suction, decantation, or
evaporation.
→ A dryer is a machine or equipment used for drying process.

→ A dewaterer is a machine or equipment used for dewatering process.

→ Dewatering is the common term for the process using only pressure, suction, or
decantation. This process is used to remove or reduce only a portion of the surface
moisture of the materials.
→ Evaporation is the main principle applied in the drying process. In a drying process, not
only the surface liquid is removed or reduced but also the internal moisture and, in
many cases, water in chemical combination.
→ Inherent moisture and bed moisture are the terms used for describing the moisture in
the mass that is not on the surface of the material.
→ Chemically combined water is the water that is produced when a chemical component
of the material changes its chemical composition by heat or other means.
 Parts of a Continuous Drying Process

1. Application of heat to the material and/or to the air mixture which carries away the
moisture
2. Means for removing the water vapor, steam, or mixture
3. Conveying the material in its wet, semi-dried, and dried condition into, through, and out of
the apparatus, allowing the material the proper time for contact with the heating and
moisture-removing elements.

B. TYPES OF DRYER

1. Direct-heat type dryer

→ In this type of dryer, flame from combustion impinges on the material being dried, or
the gases of combustion may be mixed with additional air so that the mixture in contact
with the material is reduced in temperature.

2. Indirect-heat type dryer

→ In this type, the gases of combustion pass through the spaces surrounding, or in other
heating the drying chamber, but the gases are not allowed to get in contact with the
material being dried.

3. Steam-heated type dryer

→ In this type, the materials is in contact with steam pipes or the air is passed over steam
heaters and then over or through the material being dried.

Six Commercial Types of Dryers and Three Materials Suitable for Each

1. Rotary Dryer
→ Materials: copra, sand, wood chips

2. Compartment Batch Dryer

→ Materials: wood, enamel, wares, foodstuffs

3. Centrifugal dryer
→ Materials: sugar, fertilizer, salt

4. Hearth Dryer
→ Materials: copra, enamel, wares, chalk
 5. Tower Dryer
→ Materials: palay, wheat, grains

6. Infrared Ray Dryer

→ Materials: air conditioners, cars, refrigerators

→ Hygroscopic materials are those substances which are particularly variable in the moisture
content that they can possess at different times.

→ Example: wood, leather, foodstuff, paper, tobacco, cloth, hair

→ Bone-Dry-Weight (BDW) or Dry Bone Weight is the final constant weight reached by a
hygroscopic substance after being dried out.

→ Regain is the hygroscopic moisture content of a substance expressed as a percentage of the

Bone-Dry-Weight of the material.
Weight of Moisture
Re gain =
Bone−Dry−Weight

→ Moisture content is usually expressed as a percentage of the gross weight of the body and may
refer to both hygroscopic and purely substance moisture.
Weight of Moisture
Moisture Content =
Gross Weight

→ Gross Weight:

Gross Weight = Bone-Dry-Weight + Weight of Moisture

mG = mBDW + mM

C. DRYER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

→ Figure 8.1 below illustrates the schematic diagram of a dryer with conditioned air that
passed through a CDA and re-heater

Figure 8.1. Dryer schematic Diagram

D. PSYCHROMETRIC CHART OF DRYING PROCESSES

→ Figure 8.2 below illustrates the different drying processes in the psychrometric chart.

E. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

Ex.8.1] Copra enters a dryer, containing 60% water and 40% solids, and leaves with 5 % water
and 95% solids. Find the mass of water removed from each:
a) Kilogram of original product
b) Kilogram of final product
c) Kilogram of bone-dry material

Given: Copra Dryer

Required:

The weight of water removed based on each

a) Kilogram of original product
b) Kilogram of final product
c) Kilogram of bone-dry material
 Solution:

→ Consider the following notations

MBD1 = mass of bone-dry material of the original or wet product (copra)

MBD2 = mass of bone-dry material of the final or dried product (copra)

MC1 = moisture content of the original or wet product

MC2 = moisture content of the final or dried product

MG1 = gross mass of the original or wet product

MG2 = gross mass of the final or dried product

a) Consider 1 kg of original or wet product.

Solving for the gross weight of the final product,

MBD = MG (1 − MC) = MG (Solid Part)

MBD1 = MBD2

MG1 (1 − MC1 ) = MG2 (1 − MC2 )

MG1 ( 1−MC1) 1.0 ( 0.40)

MG2 = ( 1−MC2)
= = 0.421 kg
0.95

For the mass of water removed, ∆GW,

MV = MG1 − MG2 = 1.0 − 0.421 = 0.579 kg

b) Consider 1.0 kg of final or dried product

MBD1 = MBD2

MG1 (1 − MC1 ) = MG2 (1 − MC2 )

MG2( 1−MC2) 1.0 ( 0.95)

MG1 = ( 1−MC1)
= = 2.375 kg
0.40
 For the mass of water removed, MV ,

MV = MG2 − MG1 = 2.375 − 1.00 = 1.375 kg

c) Consider 1.0 kg of the bone-dry material, MBD1 = MBD2 = 1.0

1.0 1.0
Solving for MG1, MG1 = = = 2.5 kg
1−MC1 0.40

1.0 1.0
Solving for MG2, MG2 = = = 1.053 kg
1−MC2 0.95

For the weight of water removed,

MV = MG2 − MG1 = 2.5 − 1.053 = 1.447 kg

Ex. 8.2] A dryer is to deliver 1,000 kg/hr of cassava with 2% moisture and 20% moisture in the feed.
Determine the mass of air required if the change in humidity ratio is 0.0165.

Given: A Cassava Dryer

Required:

The mass of air required if the change in humidity ratio is 0.0165.

Solution:

From the bone-dry material balance, MBD1 = MBD2

m1 (1 − MC1 ) = m2 (1 − MC2 )
 m2( 1−MC2) 1,000 ( 1−0.02)
m1 = = = 1,225 kg/hr
1−MC1 1−0.20

For the moisture removed,

MV = m1 − m2 = 1,225 − 1,000 = 225 kg/hr

For the mass flow rate air required,

MV 225
ma = = = 13,636.36 kg/hr
∆W 0.0165

Ex.8.3] A tower-type moisture dryer is to deliver 1,000 kg/hr of cassava flour with 2% residual moisture
of 20% in the feed. The air to be heated in the heating chamber is a mixture of fresh air at 33°C DB and
60% RH and hot humid air from the dryer at 49°C DB and 60% RH. The air mixture at 38°C DB and 65%
Rh is heated by a steam coil to 93°C. The dryer is properly insulated so that moisture absorption can be
considered adiabatic. Compute the:

a) Required flow of heated air mixture to dryer;

b) Capacity of forced draft fan on dryer
c) Heat in kcal/hr for heating the air mixture in the heating chamber; and
d) Percentage by weight of fresh air in the mixture

(ME Board Problem, April 1981)

Given: Drying system shown

Required:

a) The ma3 = ma4

b) The fan capacity, m3/s
c) The heat capacity of the heating chamber, kcal/hr
d) The % outdoor air required
Figure:

Solution:

a) Determination of the mass flow rate of the heated air

Consider the dryer and use the mass balance:

ma + ma (W3 ) + m5 = ma + ma (W4 ) + m6

ma (W3 ) + m5 = ma (W4 ) + m6 → ma (W4 − W3 ) = m5 − m6

m5−m6
ma =
W4−W3

Where, m5 = gross mass of material entering dryer

m6 = gross mass of material leaving the dryer

Solving for the bone-dry-mass of the material,

Gross mass = bone-dry-mass + mass of moisture

 m6 = BDM + 0.02m6

BDM = m6 − 0.02m6 = m6 (1 − 0.02) = 0.98m6 = 0.98 (1000)

BDM = 980 kg/hr

Solving for the gross mass of material entering,

m5 = BDM + 0.20m5

BDM = m5 − 0.20m5 = m5 (1 − 0.20) = 0.80m5

BDM 980
m5 = = = 1,225 kg/hr
0.80 0.80

From the psychrometric chart (Carrier),

At point 1: 33℃ DB and 60% RH,

h1 = 82.3 − 0.32 = 81.98 kJ/kg d. a.

W1 = 0.0192 kg/kg d. a.

At point 2: 38℃ DB and 65% RH,

h2 = 109 − 0.36 = 108.64 kJ/kg d. a.

W2 = 0.0275 kg/kg d. a.

At point 3: 93℃ DB and W3 = W2 = 0.0275 kg/kg d. a.

h3 = 1.007 t 3 − 0.026 + W3 (2501 + 1.84 t 3 )

h3 = 1.007 (93) − 0.026 + 0.0275[2501 + 1.84 (93)]

= 167.11 kJ/kg d. a.

At point 4: 49℃ DB and 60% RH,

pv4 = RH (pd )

Where, pd = 11.749 kPaa (from the steam Tables by Keenan at 49℃)

pv4 = 0.60 (11.749) = 7.0494 kPaa

 Then,
pv4 7.0494
W4 = 0.622 ( ) = (0.622) ( ) = 0.0465 kg/kg d. a.
pt−pv4 101.325−7.0494

h4 = 1.007 t 4 − 0.026 + W4 (2501 + 1.84 t 4 )

ℎ 4 = 1.007 (49) − 0.026 + 0.0465 [2501 + 1.84 (49)]

h4 = 169.806 kJ/kg d. a.

Therefore,
m5−m6 1225−1000
ma = = = 11842.11 kg/hr
W4−W3 0.0465−0.0275

ma = 3.29 kg/s

b. For the capacity of the forced-draft fan, Q3 = ma (V3 ),

W3 ( pt) 0.0275 ( 101.325)
where pv3 = = = 4.2901 kPaa
W3+0.622 0.0275+0.622

R T6 ( 0.28708)( 93+273)
v3 = = = 1.0828 m3 /kg d. a.
pt−pv3 101.325−4.2901

V3 = 𝑚𝑎 v3

= 3.29(1.0828)

V3 = 3.56 m3/s

c. For the heat added to the heating chamber, consider the heating chamber.

qh = ma (h3 − h2 ) = (3.29)(167.11 − 108.64) = 192.37 kW

But, 1 kcal = 4.187 kJ

 1 kCal
qh = 192.37 kW( ) (3 600 sec/hr) = 165,400.52 kCal/hr
4.187 kJ

d. For the % by weight of fresh air in the mixture, consider junction 1-4-2

By energy balance,

m1 h1 + m4 h4 = m2 h2

Where, m4 = m2 − m1

m1 h1 + (m2 − m1 )h4 = m2 h2 → m1 h1 + m2 h4 − m1 h4 = m2 h2

m1 (h1 − h4 ) = m2 (h2 − h4 )
m1 h2−h4
Then, % by weight of m1 = (100%) = (100%)
m2 h1−h4

108.64−169.715
% by weight of m1 = (100%) = 69.61%
81.98−169.715

Ex. 84.4] A dryer is to be designed to reduce the moisture content of copra from 52% to 6%.
Atmospheric air at 31°C DB and 24°C WB (h1 = 72.0 kJ/kg d. a. , W1 = 0.0161 kg/kg d. a. ) is heated by
steam coils to 88°C before entering the dryer. Steam enters the re -heater at a pressure of 135.0 kPaa
and 95% quality ( h6 = 2577.08 kJ/kg, h7 = hf6 = 453.83 kJ/kg). The air leaves at 40°C (Pd3 =
7.384 kPaa) with relative humidity of 80%. Copra enters the dryer at the rate of 1.30 kg/s. Determine:

a) The mass flow rate of air; and

b) The mass flow rate of steam.
Given: A copra Dryer Shown

Required:

a) The mass flow rate of air

b) The mass flow rate of steam

Figure:

Solution:

At point 2: 88℃ DB and W2 = W1 = 0.0161 kg/kg da

h2 = 1.007t 2 − 0.026 + W2 (2501 + 1.84 t 2 )

h2 = 1.007(88) − 0.026 + 0.0161 [2501 + 1.84 (88)] = 131.41 kJ/kg da

At point 3: 40℃ DB and 80% RH

 pv3 = RH (pd3 ) = 0.80 (7.384) = 5.9072 kPaa
pv3 5.9072
W3 = 0.622 ( ) = 0.622 ( ) = 0.0385 kg/kg d. a.
pt−pv3 101.325−5.9072

h3 = 1.007t 3 − 0.026 + W3 (2501 + 184t 3 )

h3 = 1.007 (40) − 0.026 + 0.0385[2501 + 1.84 (40)] = 139.376 kJ/kg

a. For the mass flow rate of air, consider the dryer.

By the mass balance,

ma + ma (W2 ) + m4 = ma + ma (W3 ) + m5

ma (W2 ) + m4 = ma (W3 ) + m5 ; → ma (W3 − W2 ) = m4 − m5

m4−m5
ma =
W3−W2

Solving for the bone-dry-mass of the copra,

Gross mass = bone-dry-mass + mass of moisture

m4 = BDM + 0.52 m4

BDM = m4 − 0.52 m4 = m4 (1 − 0.52) = 0.48 m4 = 0.48(1.30)

BDM = 0.624 kg/s

Solving for the gross mass of copra entering,

m5 = BDM + 0.06 m5 → BDM = m5 (1. −0.06) = 0.94 m5

BDM 0.624
m5 = = = 0.664 kg/s
0.94 0.94
 m4−m5 1.30−0.664
Therefore, ma = = = 28.39 kg/s
W3−W2 0.0385−0.0161

b. For the mass flow rate of steam, consider the heating chamber.

By energy balance,

ms (h7 − h8 ) = ma (h2 − h1 )
ma ( h2−h1) 28.39 ( 131.41−72)
m6 = = = 0.794 kg/s
h6 −h7 2577.08−453.83

Ex. 8.5] Wet material containing 215% moisture (dry basis) is to be dried at the rate of 1.5 kg/s in a
continuous dryer to give a product containing 5% moisture (wet basis). The drying medium consists of
air heated to 373 K and contains water vapor with a partial pressure of 1.40 kPaa. The air leaves the
dryer at 310 K and 70% RH. Calculate how much air will be required to remove the moisture. (ME Board
Problem, October 1990)

Given: Dryer shown

Required:

Find the required air to remove the moisture.

Solution:

Consider the dryer. Solving for the bone-dry-mass,

m3 = BDM + 2.15 BDM = 3.15 BDM

m3 1.5
BDM = = = 0.476 kg/s
3.15 3.15

Solving for the mass of the material leaving the dryer,

m4 = BDM + 0.05 m3

BDM = (1 − 0.05) m4 = 0.95 m4

BDM 0.476
m4 = = = 0.501 kg/s
0.95 0.95

Solving for the mass of air required using mass balance

ma + ma (W1 ) + m3 = ma + ma (W2 ) + m4
m3−m4
ma (W2 − W1 ) = m3 − m4 ; → ma =
W2−W1

Note: The students are advised to complete the solution.

Ex. 8.6] Copra enters a dryer containing 60% water and 40% solids and leaves with 5% water and 95%
solids. Find the weight of water removed based on a kg of the original product (ME Board Problem,
October 1992).

Given: Copra Dryer

Required:

The mass of water removed based on a kg of the original product.

Solution:

Consider 1 kg of wet feed.

Let x = mass of original product per kg of wet feed

Solid in wet feed = Solid in dried product

0.95x = 0.40(1) → x = 0.421 kg

Solving for the water removed,

Mass of water removed = 1 − 0.421 = 0.579 kg/kg of original product

PROBLEMS

1. Copra enters a dryer containing 60% water and 40% of solids and leaves with 5% water and 95%
solids. Find the amount of water removed based on a kg of final product and a kg of bone -dry-
material (ME Board Problem, October 1992).

2. The temperature of the air in a dryer is maintained constant by the use of steam coils within the
dryer. The product enters the dryer at the rate of 1 metric ton per hour. The initial moisture
content is 3.0-kg moisture per kg/hr solid and will be dried to a moisture content of 0.10 kg
moisture per kg solid. Air enters the dryer with a humidity ratio of 0.016 kg/kg d.a. and leaves
with a relative humidity of 100% while the temperature remains constant at 60°C. If the total
pressure of air is 101.325 kPaa, determine the total amount of air required in kg/hr under
entrance condition, and the capacity of forced draft fan to handle this air in m3 /min (ME Board
Problem, April 1983).

3. A dryer is to deliver 1,000 kg/hr of palay with a final moisture content of 10%. The initial
moisture content in the feed is 15% at atmospheric condition with 32°C DB and 21°C WB. The
dryer is maintained at 45°C while the relative humidity of the hot humid air from the dryer is
80%. If the steam pressure supplied to the heater is 2 Mpaa, determine:

a) The amount of palay supplied to the dryer in kg/hr and the temperature of the hot humid
air from the dryer in °C
b) The mass flow rate of air supplied to the dryer, in m 3/hr
c) The heat capacity of the heater in kW
d) The steam supplied to the heater in kg/hr. (ME Board Problem, October 1985)

4. A dryer is to deliver 0.30 kg/s of cassava with 2% moisture and 20% moisture in the feed.
Determine the mass of air required if the change in humidity ratio is 0.0165 kg/kg d.a.
 5. A rotary dryer fired with bunker oil of 10,000 kcal/kg higher heating value is to produce 20
metric tons/hr of dried sand with 0.5% moisture from a wet feed containing 7% moisture.
Specific heat of sand is 0.21 Btu/lb-°F. Temperature of wet sand is 30°C and temperature of
dried product is 115°C.

a. Calculate the weight of wet feed

b. Calculate the weight of water to be removed in kg/hr.
c. Calculate the heat required.
d. Calculate the liters of bunker oil per hour if specific gravity of bunker oil is 0.90 and dryer
efficiency is 60%.

(ME Board Problem, November 1983)

STUDENT’S SELF TEST

Instruction: Select the correct answer

1. A copra drying plant is designed to dry 1 000 kg/hr of fresh coconut meat containing 30% water.
The raw copra from the dryer contains 5% water. Fresh air at 27°C and 40% RH and barometric
pressure of 98 kPa has W = 0.0083 kg/kg d.a. and h = 50.86 kJ/kg d.a. The air is heated to 110°C
(h = 135.58 kJ/kg d.a.) before entering the adiabatic drying chamber and leaves the dryer at
75°C with humidity ratio of 0.02285 kg/kg d.a. Assuming 100% heat transfer efficiency in the air
pre-heater, determine the amount of steam required by the dryer when condensing saturate d
steam to saturated liquid at 150 kPaa (hfg = 2226.5 kJ/kg)

a) 739 kg/hr b) 793 kg/hr c) 379 kg/hr d) 937 kg/hr

2. A certain material enters dryer containing 60% water and leaves with 5% water. Find the mass
of the final product if the original product is 1 kg/s.
a) 0.421 kg/s b) 0.412 kg/s c) 0.214 kg/s d) 0.142 kg/s

3. A ground cassava enters dryer containing 60% moisture and leaves as a flour with 5% moisture.
Find the mass of the original product the final product is 1 kg/s.

a) 2.735 kg/s b) 2.375 kg/s c) 2.537 kg/s d) 2.753 kg/s

4. Banana chips enter dryer containing 60% moisture and leaves with 5% water. Find the mass of
the original product if the bone-dry weight is 1 kg/s.

a) 2.5 kg/s b) 1.5 kg/s c) 3.5 kg/s d) 4.5 kg/s

5. A machine or equipment used for drying process.

a) Dewaterer b) Evaporator c) Dryer d) Filter

6. Water occurring when chemical component of the material changes its chemical composition by
heat or other means is called:
a) Moisture b) Chemically combined water

c) Water vapor d) Steam

7. A wet-type mechanical classifier (solid separator) in which solids settle out of the carrier liquid
and are concentrated for recovery is known as:
a) Dryer b) Filter c) Dewaterer d) Evaporator

8. A term used for describing the moisture in the mass that is not on the surface of the material.

a) Moisture content b) Inherent moisture

c) vapor d) Chemically combined water

9. The main principle of the term drying process.

a) Water removal b) Dewatering c) Evaporation d) Compression

10. The common term for processes using only pressure, suction, or decantation.
a) Drying b) Evaporation c) Dewatering d) Compression

11. The process of removing moisture in varying amounts from solid or semi -fluid materials; the
process may be accomplished by pressure, suction, decantation, or evaporation.

a) Dewatering b) Drying c) Evaporation d) Decantation

12. A type of dryer that may have the flame from combustion impinging on the material being
dried; or the gases of combustion may be mixed with additional air so that mixture in contact
with the material is reduced in temperature.

a) Direct-type dryer b) Indirect-type dryer

c) Steam-heated type dryer d) Centrifugal dryer

13. The most commonly used dryer that consists of a rotating cylinde r inside which the materials
flow while getting in contact with the hot gasses. The cylinder is tilted at right angle and fitted
with lifting flights. This dryer is used for copra, sand, or wood chips.

a) Rotary dryer b) Tower dryer c) Hearth dryer d) Centrifugal dryer

14. A dryer where material is in contact with steam pipes or the air is passed over steam heaters
and then over or through the material being dried.

a) Steam-heated dryer b) Indirect-heat type dryer

c) Direct-heat dryer d) Tower dryer

15. A dryer that consists of a centrifuge revolving at high speed causing the separation, by
centrifugal force, of the water from the material. This dryer is used for drying fertilizer, salt, and
sugar.
a) Centrifugal dryer b) Hearth dryer c) Tower dryer d) Rotary dryer

16. A dryer type in which the material to be dried is supported on a floor through which the hot
gasses pass. This dryer is used for copra, coal and enamel wares.
a) Centrifugal dryer b) Hearth dryer c) Rotary dryer d) Tower dryer

17. Those substance that are particularly variable in the moisture content that they can possess at
different times.
a) Wet materials b) Hygroscopic materials
c) Gross materials d) Bone-dry-weight material

18. The hygroscopic moisture content of a substance expressed as a percentage of the bone-dry-
weight of the material.
a) Moisture content b) Regain c) Bone-dry-weight d) Gross weight

19. A dryer that consists of trays, carrying the materials to be dried, placed in a compartment or
moving conveyor. This type of dryer is used for ipil-ipil leaves, and grains.
a) Centrifugal dryer b) Infrared ray dryer c) Tray dryer d) Hearth dryer

20. A type of dryer that consists of a vertical shaft in which the wet feed is introduced at the top and
falls downward over baffles while coming in contact with the hot air that rises and exhaust at
the top. This dryer is used for drying palay, wheat and grains.
a) Rotary dryer b) Hearth dryer c) Tower dryer d) Tray dryer