2023

BASIC ELECTRONIS
APPLIED PHYSICS
BY AUTHOR: BASED ON FINAL EXAMS AND PAST PAPERS FOR THE PREPARATION OF
SUPPLIMENTRY EXAMS.

NOOR COMP
ALItheHASSAN
[Type company name]
15-12-2022
1/1/2023
 CHAPTER # 1
CONTENT: CIRCUIT FUNDAMENTALS
Q1- WHAT IS ZERO REFERENCE LEVEL?
In order to avoid errors in the measurement of various voltages in an electronic
circuit, it is essential to select some common point which is considered to be at
zero potential. All circuit voltages whether positive or negative, are measured with
respect to this point.
Q2- STATE THE IMPORTANCE OF ZERO REFERENCE LEVEL IN CIRCUIT.
It is important because all circuit voltages whether positive or negative, are
measured with respect to this point. It is also a known as printed circuit board
(PCB) made of plastic.
Q3- DEFINE CHASSIS GROUND?
Generally, electronics components are mounted either on a conducting metal sheet
called chassis or on a non-conducting plastic board with printed wiring.
Q4- STATE OHM’S LAW.
In circuit energized by dc voltage sources, there exists a definite relationship
between the current (I) that flows through a resistance (R) and the voltage (V)
applied across resistance. This relationship is called id called Ohm’s law and may
be expressed by the equation.
I = V/R
Where I = current in ampere
V = applied voltage in volts
R = resistance in ohms
It is seen from the above formula that current is
1. directly proportional to applied voltage
2. inversely proportional to resistance
Q5- WHAT IS LINEAR RESISTOR?
A linear resistor is one whose value remains constant. It does not depend on
applied voltage.
 Q6- WHAT IS NON-LINEAR RESISTOR?
It is the circuit in which V and I are not directly proportional to each other.
Q7- WHAT IS SERIES CONNECTION?
In series connection, the circuit elements are arranged in a single path. This means
the, if there are three resistors in series, the same current must flow through all 3.
Q8- WHAT IS PARALLEL CONNECTION?
In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other with exactly
two electrically common nodes with the same voltage across each component.
Q9- WHAT ARE LIMITATIONS OF OMH’S LAW?
R=VI. Ohm’s law does not apply to unilateral electrical components such as
diodes as well as transistors even though they only permit current just to flow in
one way.

BASIC FORMULAE
1. Current: I = V/R ampere
2. Resistance: R = V/I ohmsΩ
3. Voltage: V = V = IR volts
 CHAPTER # 2
CONTENT: RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
Q1- WHAT IS SERIES CIRCUIT?
When components in a circuit are connected end-to-end so that all the circuit current
passes through each component, they form a series circuit.
Q2- WRITE CHARACTRISTICS OF A SERIES CIRCUIT:
1. Total resistance equals the sum of all series resistances.
R = R1 + R2 +R3
2. Current through all resistors is the same.
I = V/R
3. The sum of individuals IR drops equals the applied voltage.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
4. There is a stepped fall in voltage as we go from one end the battery to the other.
Q3- THE CASE OF ZERO IR DROP:
It is obvious that drop ‘IR’ will be zero when either I is zero or R is zero. Now, for
copper conducting wires, R is practically zero. Similarly, there is no IR drop when I
is zero i.e., when applied voltage has been disconnected or there is an open in the
circuit.
Q4- POLARITY OF IR DROPS:
The study of voltage polarities, whether positive or negative, is of extreme
importance in transistor and semiconductor circuits. When voltage drop exists across
a resistor, its one end must be more positive than other.
Q5- WHAT IS TOTAL POWER IN CIRCUIT?
The total power needed to drive current through different resistors appears in the
form of heat. Hence, total power supplied by the energy source must be equal to the
sum of individual powers dissipated in different resistors
P = P 1 + P2 + P3
Q6- SERIES-AIDING VOLTAGES:
In series-aiding combination, the voltage sources (cells or batteries) are connected in
series such that positive terminal of one is joined to negative terminal of the next. In
this case, total voltage across the circuit is the sum of all voltages or battery emf’s.
Q7- AERIES-OPPOSING VOLTAGES:
In series-opposing combination, positive terminal of the one voltage source is
connected to the positive terminal of the next.

Q8- SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER:

A voltage divider is a simple series circuit. Its output voltage is the fraction of its
input voltage. Voltage division is the result of distributing the input voltage among
the components of the divider.

Q9- USES OF SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER:

Series voltage-divider circuits are used when it is necessary to obtain different values
of voltage from a single energy source.

Q10- EXPLAIN ‘OPEN’ IN A SERIES CIRCUIT:

An open can be defined as that there is no current in a circuit. Following two effects
would be produced:
1. First, the ‘open’ will offer an infinite resistance.
2. Circuit current will become zero.
3. Whole of the applied voltage would be felt across the ‘open’.

Q11- EXPLAIN ‘SHORTS’ IN A SERIES CIRCUIT:

A ‘short’ has practically zero resistance. Hence, it causes the problem of excessive
current which, in turn, causes power to increase many times and circuit components
to burn out.

Q12- WHAT ARE PARALLEL CIRCUITS?

A parallel circuit is a branched arrangement in which two or more resistors are
connected side by side across a single voltage source. Parallel connections are also
called multiple connections or shunt connections.

Q13- LAWS OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT:

1. Voltage across each branch is the same.
2. Reciprocal resistance formula
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
3. Each branch current is given by V/R.
I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2, I3 = V/R3
4. The sum of branch currents is equal to the total current supplied by the battery.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 in amperes
Q14- SPECIAL CASE OF EQUAL RESISTANCES IN ALL BRANCHES:
If resistances in all branches of a parallel circuit are equal, then the combined
resistance equals the value of one of the branch resistance divided by the number of
branches. REQ = R/n
Q15- SPECIAL CASE OF ONLY TWO BRANCHES:
The combined resistance of two unequal resistances connected in a parallel is given
by 1/R = 1R1 + 1/R2 = (R1 + R2) / (R1R2)
Q16- COMBINED RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
Combined or equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is less than the least amongst
them. For example, R = 2||500||1000||10,000 = 1.98 Ω.
Q17- PRPORTIONAL CURRENT FORMULA:
I1 = I .R2 / (R1 + R2) I2 = I .R1 / (R1 + R2)
Q18- EXPLAIN ‘OPEN’ IN A PARALLEL CIRCIUT:
An ‘open’ is equivalent to an infinite resistance, there would be no current in the part
of the circuit where it occurs. In a parallel circuit, an ‘open’ can occur either in the
main line or in any parallel branch.
Q19- EXPLAIN ‘SHORT’ IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
In parallel circuit short across one branch means short across all branches. It draws
an infinite current. Due to this excessive current, the wires may get hot enough to
burn out unless the circuit is protected by fuse.
Q20- WHAT IS FUSE?
Fuses are used to protect a circuit from short.
Q21- EXPLAIN SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
In these circuits, some resistors are connected in parallel and then this parallel
combination is connected in series with other resistors.
Q22- USES OF SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS:
Series-parallel circuits are used where there is necessary to provide various amount
of current and voltages with single power supply.
 BASIC FORMULAE
FOR SERIES CIRCUIT:
1. Conductance: 1/G = 1/G1 + 1/G2 + 1/G3
2. Power: (1) P = I2R W | (2) P = VI
P1 = I2R1
P2 = I2R2
3. Total power: P = P1 +P2 +P3
4. Voltage: V1 = V × R1/R
V2 = V × R2/R
V3 = V × R3/R
5. Total voltage: V = V1 + V2 + V3
6. Resistance: R = R1 + R2 + R3
FOR PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
1. Reciprocal resistance: 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
2. Current: I1 = V/R1
I2 = V/R2
I3 = V/R3
3. Total current: I = I1 + I2 + I3
Proportional current formula: I1 = I .R2 / (R1 + R2) I2 = I .R1 / (R1 + R2)
 CHAPTER # 5
CONTENT: PASSIVE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Q1- DEFINE ELEMENTS/PARAMETERS?
Individual components which make up an electronic circuit are called elements or
parameters. Most commonly-used elements in such circuits are:
1. Resistors 2. Inductors 3. Capacitors
Q2- DEFINE RESISTORS?
A resistor is an electrical component with a known specified value of resistance. As
its name suggests, a resistor resists or opposes the flow of current through it.
Q3- USES OF RESISTORS:
1. To establish proper values of circuit voltages due to IR drops.
2. To limit current.
3. To provide load.
Q4- TYPES OF RESISTORS:
Resistors are mainly of two types and can be either of fixed or variable value.
1. Wire-wound resistors
2. Carbon resistors
(a) Carbon-composition type
(b) Carbon-film type
(c) Cermet-film type
Another type is called metal thin-film resistor.
Q5- CHRACTERISTICS OF A RESISTOR:
The two main characteristics of a resistor are its resistance and power rating.
Q6- WIRE-WOUND RESISTOR:
They are constructed from a long fine wire (usually called nickel chromium wire)
wound on ceramic core. Wire-wound resistors are used where
1. Large power dissipation is necessary
2. Precise and stable resistance values are required as for meter shunts and
multipliers.
Q7- CARBON-COMPOSITION RESISTORS:
They are made of finely-divided carbon mixed with a powder insulating material in
suitable proportion.
Q8- CARBON FILM RESISTORS:
They consists of a high grade ceramic rod or core (called the substrate) on which is
deposited a thin resistive film of carbon. They are cheaper than composition
resistors.
Q9- CERMET FILM RESISTORS:
They consist of thin carbon coating fired on to a solid ceramic substrate. The main
purpose is to have more precise resistance values and greater stability with heat.
Very often, they are made in a small square with leads to fit into a printed circuit
board (PCB).
Q10- METAL FILM RESISTORS:
They are also referred to as thin-film resistors. They consist of a thin metal coating
deposited on a cylindrical insulating support. The high resistance values are due to
thinness of the film.
Q11- POWER RATING:
The power rating of a resistor is given by the maximum wattage it can dissipate
without excessive heat. The power rating indicates the rate at which that machine can
do work upon other objects.
Q12- DEFINE RESISTIVITY?
A material’s electrical resistivity is a measure of how strongly it opposes the flow of
current.
Q13- WHAT IS VALUE TOLERANCE?
It means that actual resistance of a resistor may be greater or lesser than its indicated
value.
Q14- DEFINE VARIABLE RESISTORS?
These are the resistors whose resistance can be changed between zero and certain
maximum value. They can be wire-wound or carbon type.
Q15- DEFINE POTENTIOMETERS?
It is a device that used as variable resistor. A potentiometer is a three-terminal
resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider.
Q16- DEFINE RHEOSTATS?
A rheostat is a variable resistor which is used to control current. It has two terminals.
Q17- DEFINE FUSIBLE RESISTORS?
These are wire-wound devices similar in appearance to ordinary wire-wound resistor.
They are sometimes used in amplifiers and TV sets to protect certain circuits. They
have resistance of less than 15Ω.
Q18- RESISTOR COLOUR CODE:
They are color-coded to indicate their resistance in ohms. The system is based on the
use of colors as numerical values.
Q19- RESISTANCE COLOUR BANDS:
These bands are printed around the body of the resistor near its one end. Each color
stands for a digit.
Q20- DEFINE INDUCTOR?
It is another basic component commonly used in electronic circuits. It is nothing else
but a coil wound on a core or former of some suitable material.
Q21- TYPES OF INDUCTORS:
1. Air-core Inductor 2. Iron-core Inductor 3. Ferrite-core Inductor
Q22- DEFINE AIR-CORE INDUCTOR?
It consists of number of turns of wire wound on a former made of ordinary
cardboard.
Q23- DEFINE IRON-CORE INDUCTOR?
It is that inductor in which a coil of wire is wound over a solid or laminated iron
core.
Q24- DEFINE FERRITE-CORE INDUCTOR?
In this case, coil of wire is wound on a solid core made of highly ferromagnetic
substance called ferrite.
Q25- DEFINE INDUCTANCE?
The property of the coil due to which it opposes any change in current through it is
called inductance (L). Its unit is henry(H). the inductance of a coil is given by
L = (μ0 μr A N2)/l henrys
Q26- COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT CORES:
 In air-core coils, there are no core losses even at high frequencies.
 In iron-core coils, losses are minimal at low.
 Ferrite-core coils have high inductance value with minimum eddy current and
hysteresis losses even at very high frequencies.
Q27- SYMBOLS OF CORES:

Air-core Iron-core Ferrite-core

Q28- DEFINE CAPACITORS?

It is a device which has ability to store charge which neither a resistor nor an
inductor can do. It opposes any change of voltage in the circuit in which it is
connected. It blocks the passage of direct current through it.
Q29- DEFINE DIELECTRIC?
Essentially, a capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating
medium called dielectric.
Q30- DEFINE DIELECTRIC STRENGTH?
The maximum voltage per metre thickness which a medium can withstand without a
rupture or breakdown is called its dielectric strength.
Q31- DEFINE CAPACITANCE?
It measures the ability of a capacitor to store charge. It may be defined as the amount
of charge required to create a unit potential difference between its plates. C = Q/V
farad.
Q32- FACTORS CONTROLLING CAPACITANCE:
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the following factors.
1. Plate Area
Capacitance increases directly with increase in plate area(A)
2. Plate Separation
As plate separation (d) decreases, capacitance increases and vice versa.
3. Type of Dielectric
It depends on the relative permittivity εr (called dielectric constant) of the dielectric
medium used. Higher the value of εr, greater the value of capacitance. C = (ε0 εr A)/d.
Q33- TYPES OF CAPACITORS:
All capacitors commonly used in electronic circuits may be divided into two general
classes (a) fixed capacitors and (b) variable capacitors.
Q34- TYPES OF FIXED CAPACITORS:
These can be grouped into two classes as below:
(i) Electrolytic capacitors (ii) non-electrolytic capacitors
Q35- DEFINE NON-ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS?
Some capacitors have no polarity requirement i.e., they can be connected in either
direction in a circuit. Non-electrolytic capacitor includes paper, mica and ceramic
capacitors.
Q36- DEFINE PAPER CAPACITOR?
It consists of two tinfoil sheets which are separated by thin tissue paper or waxed
paper. The sandwich of foil and paper is then rolled into a cylindrical shape and
enclosed in a paper tube or encased in a plastic capsule. The lead at each end of the
capacitor is internally attached to the metal foil.
Paper capacitors have a capacitance range of 0.001 to 2.0 μF and working-voltage
rating as high as 2000 V.
Q37- DEFINE MICA CAPACITOR?
It is a sandwich of several thin metal plates separated by thin sheets of mica.
Alternate plates are connected together and leads attached for outside connections.
Such capacitors have small capacitance values (50 to 500 pF) yet high working
voltage rating (500 V and above).
Q38- DEFINE CERAMIC CAPACITORS?
Such capacitors have disc- or hollow tubular-shaped dielectric made of ceramic
material such as titanium dioxide and barium titanate.
The capacitance range varies from 1 to 500 pF with working voltage rating
exceeding 10 kV.
Q39- DEFINE ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS?
These capacitors are called electrolytic because they use an electrolyte (borax or a
carbon salt) as negative plate. The capacitor consists of a positive plate of aluminium
and an extremely thin insulating film of aluminium oxide as dielectric medium.
Q40- WHAT IS VARIABLE CAPACITORS?
A variable capacitor is one whose capacitance can be varied usually by rotating a
shaft. It consists of two sets of metal plates separated from each other by air. One set
of plates is stationary and is called stator. The other set of plates is connected to the
shaft and can be rotated. That is why it is called the rotor.
Q41- DEFINE GANGED CAPACITOR?
When two or more capacitors are operated by a single shaft, it is known as ganged
capacitor.
Q42- DEFINE TRIMMER?
Another type of small variable capacitor which is often used in parallel with the main
variable capacitor is sometimes called as trimmer and sometimes padder.
Q43- VOLTAGE RATING OF CAPACITORS:
Voltage rating of a capacitor is given by the maximum potential difference that can
be applied across its places without puncturing its dielectric.
Q44- STRAY CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE:
Stray (٥‫ )گمرا‬capacitance is the unintentional manifestation of electric charge in a
circuit or non-capacitive components.
Q45- LEAKAGE RESISTANCE:
The leakage resistance is any conductive elements which offers path for current flow
which is not intended.
Q46- DEFINE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE?
The difference of electrical potential between two points is called potential
difference.
ΔV –VB – VA
Q47- CAPACITORS IN SERIES:
Connecting capacitors in series is equivalent to increasing the thickness of the
dielectric.
Following points about series combination of capacitors should be noted:
1. charge on each capacitor is the same irrespective of its capacitance.
2. p.d. across each capacitor is different being inversely proportional to its
capacitance.
3. sums of voltages across the capacitors equals the applied voltage.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
4. combined resistance is given by the reciprocal formula.
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 or C = 1/(1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3)
Q48- TWO CAPACITORS IN SERIES:
1. C = (C1 C2)/(C1 + C2)
2. V1 = VC2/( C1 + C2)
3. V2 = VC1(C1 + C2)
Q49- CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:
Connecting capacitors in parallel is equivalent to adding their plate areas. Hence,
combined capacitance equals the sum of individual capacitances.
Following facts about parallel combination of capacitors should be noted:4
1. charge across each capacitor is different, being directly proportional to its
capacitance.
(Q = CV)
2. p.d. across each capacitor is the same i.e., the applied voltage V,
3. the sum of the individual charges is equal to the total charge supplied by the
power source.
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
4. combined capacitance is equal to the sum of individual capacitances.
C = C1 + C2 + C3
Q50- TWO CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:
1. V is the same across both capacitors
V = Q1/C1 = Q2/C2
Q1/C1 = Q2/C2 or Q1/Q2 = C1/C2
2. the two capacitor charges can be expressed in terms of the total charge Q taken
from the power source.
Q1 = QC1/(C1 + C2); Q2 = QC2/(C1 + C2)
 CHAPTER # 6
CONTENT: ENERGY SOURCES
Q1- DEFINE VOLTAIC CHEMICAL CELL?
A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of materials which produce direct-current
(dc) electrical energy from its internal chemical reaction.
Q2- TYPES OF CELLS:
(a) Primary Cell
(b) Secondary Cell or Storage Cell or Accumulator
Q3- DEFINE PRIMARY CELL?
In this cell, chemical reactions are irreversible. These cells cannot be recharged back
to their original condition after being discharged.
Q4- DEFINE SECONDARY CELL?
In these cells, chemical reactions are reversible. After discharge, such cell can be
restored to its original condition by passing an electric current through it in a
direction opposite to that of the discharge current.
Q5- DIFFERENTIATE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS:
Primary cells Secondary cells
1. Low cost Expensive
2. Small size Reasonably small
3. Short life Comparatively long life
4. Useless when discharged Rechargeable
5. Light weight Heavier
Q6- DEFINE BATTERY?
A battery consists of two or more cells connected either in series or parallel or both.
Q7- VOLTAGE AND CURRENT OF A CELL?
Voltage a cell can produce when not connected to a load current. A larger cell can
deliver more current for a longer period of time than a smaller one.
Q7- CELL LIFE:
It is given by the period of time during which the cell can be stored on a shelf
without losing more than approximately 10% of its original capacity.
Q8- DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRY CELLS:
We will consider the following primary and secondary cells:
(a) Carbon-zinc cell
(b) Alkaline cell
1. Manganese-alkaline cell
2. Nickel-cadmium cell
3. Mercury cell
4. Silver-oxide cell
5. Lead-acid cell
Q9- CARBON ZINC CELL:
It is the oldest and most widely used as commercial dry cell. It is a dry cell primary
battery that provides direct electric current from the electrochemical reaction
between zinc and manganese dioxide in the presence of electrolyte.
Q10- ALKALINE CELLS?
All those cells which use a caustic electrolyte are called alkaline cells.
Q11- MANGANESE ALKALINE CELL:
High-performance battery that produces 1.5 V and has a longer life span than the
carbon-zinc cell; it is used in devices such as flashlights, portable CD players and
camera flash units.
Q12- NICKEL CADMIUM CELL:
A nickel-cadmium battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy upon
discharge and converts electrical energy back to chemical energy upon recharge. The
nickel-cadmium batteries are secondary cells since the cell can also be recharged as a
result.
Q13- MERCURY CELL:
It is a primary cell and is widely used in miniaturized electronic gadgetry. It is a type
of dry cell consisting of zinc anode, mercuric oxide cathode and potassium
hydroxide as an electrolyte.
Q14- SILVER OXIDE CELL:
It is a primary cell with an open-circuit voltage of 1.5 V. it has a cathode of silver
oxide and an anode of zinc in an alkaline electrolyte.
Q15- LEAD ACID CELL:
It is a wet secondary cell mostly used for making automobile batteries. A storage cell
in which the positive plate is lead dioxide, the negative plate is spongy lead, and the
electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid.
Q16- BATTERY RATING:
Battery capacity is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the charge stored by the
battery, and is determined by the mass of active material contained in the battery.
The battery capacity represents the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted
from the battery under certain specified conditions.
Q17- TESTING A DRY CELL:
The condition of a dry cell or battery can be checked by the terminal voltage
developed when it is connected to a load.
Q18- PHOTOELECTRIC DEVICES:
As the name shows, these devices convert light energy directly into electric energy.
(a) Photovoltaic cell (b) solar cell
Q19- PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL?
In this cell, light energy is used to create a potential difference which is directly
proportional to the frequency and intensity of the incident light.
Q20- DEFINE SOLAR CELL?
It is also called solar energy converter and is basically a P-N junction device which
converts solar energy into electric energy.
 CHAPTER # 7
CONTENT: MAGNETISM AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM
Q1- DEFINE MAGNETIC MATERIAL?
Magnetic materials are the ones that are attracted by a magnet. Iron, steel, cobalt etc.
Q2- DEFINE NON-MAGNETIC MATERIAL?
Non-magnetic materials do not get attracted to a magnet, i.e. plastic, glass, wood,
rubber etc.
Q3- FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
These are the most important magnetic materials used in Electricity and Electronics.
They are easily and strongly magnetized in the same direction as the field. They have
high value of relative permeability from 50 to 5000 i.e., they conduct magnetic flux
50 to 5000 times more easily than air. Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt etc.
Q4 – PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
They become only slightly or weakly-magnetized in a strong magnetic field in the
same direction as the field. The conduct magnetic flux only slightly better than
vacuum(or air). Their relative permeability is slightly greater than one. Aluminium,
chromium, platinum etc.
Q5- DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
These include bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold and silver which have
a relative permeability of less than one i.e., they conduct magnetic flux less readily
than air. They are also slightly magnetized but in opposite direction to that of the
magnetizing field.
Q6- FERRITES:
It is the name given to the recently-discovered ceramic materials that have the
ferromagnetic properties of iron. Ferrites are made first by grinding a combination of
iron oxide and an alkaline-earth material such as barium into a fine powder. This
powder is then pressed into the desired shape and baked at a high temperature.
Q7- TYPES OF MAGNETS:
(a) Permanent magnet(PM) (b) Electromagnets
Q8- PERMANENT MAGNET:
A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creats
its own persistent magnetic field.
Q9- ELECTROMAGNETS:
An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire which acts as magnet when an electric
current passes through it.
Q10- DEMAGNETISING OR DEGAUSSING:
The process used for destroying the magnetic properties of a magnet is called
demagnetization. A permanent magnet may be demagnetized by heating it to a high
temperature or by hammering it.
Q11- MAGNETIC SHIELDING:
A protection from the influence of an external magnetic field is called magnetic
shielding.
Q12- MAGNETIC FLUX(Φ):
The entire group of magnetic lines of force coming out of the N-pole of a magnet is
called magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb).
Q13- FLUX DENSITY (B):
It is given by the flux incident normally on a unit area. If a magnet flux of Φ webers
falls perpendicularly on an area of Am2 , then flux density is given by
B = Φ /A
Its unit is weber/metre2 (Wb/m2) which is also called Tesla (T).
Q14- MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH(H):
Intensity of magnetic field or magnetizing force is known as magnetic field strength.
Its unit is newton/weber (N/Wb).
Q15- MAGNETISING FORCE OF A SOLENOID:
H = NI/l A/m or AT/m
Q16- PERMEABILITY:
It is the ability of a magnetic material to conduct magnetic flux through it.
Q17- ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY (µ):
It is defined as a measure of the soil’s ability to transmit fluid. The absolute
permeability is ( µ = B/H) = flux density/magnetizing force
Q18- RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (µr):
Relative permeability of a magnet is the ratio of the permeability of the material to
the permeability of vacuum.
µr = µ/ µ0 = absolute permeability of medium/absolute permeability of vacuum
Q19- RETENTIVITY/REMENANCE:
It is the ability of a material to hold its magnetism after the magnetizing force has
been removed.
Q20- HYSTERESIS:
The lag between making a change such as increasing or decreasing power and the
response or effect of the change.
Q21- HYSTERESIS LOSS:
Hysteresis leads to net loss of energy which is called hysteresis loss.
Q22- PERMEANCE:
It is the reciprocal of reluctance and resembles electrical conductance. Its unit is
henry.
Q23- RELUCTIVITY/RESISTIVITY:
It is specific reluctance and corresponds to electrical resistivity which is ‘specific
resistance’.
Q24- MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF):
It resembles voltage or electromotive force (EMF) in an electric circuit and is
responsible for producing magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. Its value is given by
the product of current through the coil and its number of turns i.e., NI. Its unit is
ampere-turn.
Q25- RELUCTANCE:
It resembles resistance in an electric circuit.
S = l/( µA)
Q26- TRANSFORMER:
It is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus that
 Transfers electric power from one circuit to another having mutual induction
with it.
 Does so without change of frequency.
  Does it by electromagnetic induction.
Q27- DIFFERENTIATE CORE TYPE AND SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER:
Core type transformer……. in which the windings surround a considerable part of
the core.
Shell type transformer…….in which the core surrounds a considerable part of the
windings.
Q28- TYPES OF TRANSFORMER BY FUNCTION:
1. Audio frequency (AF) Transformer
2. Radio frequency (RF) Transformer
3. Power transformer
Q29- AUDIO FREQUENCY (AF) TRANSFORMER:
They are designed to operate over the audio frequency (AF) range of 20Hz to 20kHz,
have laminated core and are usually smaller than power transformers. They are
primarily used for impedance matching and, in some cases, for voltage amplification.
Q30- RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) TRANSFORMER:
They are designed to operate at high frequencies (above audio range) and are
referred to either as intermediate (IF) transformers or radio frequency transformers.
They may have air core or ferrite core (mostly adjustable).
Q31- POWER TRANSFORMER:
Usually, they have laminated core and have one primary winding but several
secondary windings insulated from each other. They are commonly used in the
power supply of electronic equipment and provide various ac voltages necessary for
the production of dc voltages.
Q32- TRANSFORMER WORKING:
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and mutual induction. There are usually two coils primary and secondary
coil on the transformer core. The core laminations are joined in the form of stripes.
The two coils have high mutual inductance.
The first coil in which electric energy is fed is called primary winding and the other
from which energy is drawn out is called secondary winding.
V2/V1 = N2/N1 = K V1I1= V2I2 bcz I2=I1K
If N2 > N1, then V2 > V1 and the transformer is called step-up transformer. If
N2 < N1, then V2 < V1 and the transformer is called step-down transformer.
Q33- TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE:
The impedance of a transformer is the total opposition offered to alternating current.
This may be calculated for each winding.
Primary impedance, Z1 = √(R12 + X12); Secondary impedance, Z1 = √(R22 + X22)
Q34- CAN A TRANSFORMER OPERATE ON DC?
A transformer cannot operate on a steady or unchanging dc voltage such as that of a
battery. It requires a voltage which rises and falls.
Q35- RF SHIELDING:
Radio frequency (RF) shielding is a solution used for blocking radio frequency
interference.
Q36- AUTOTRANSFORMER:
It is a transformer with one winding only, part of it being common to both primary
and secondary.
Q37- IMPEDANCE MATCHING:
Impedance matching is designing source and load impedances to minimize signal
reflection or maximize power transfer. In DC circuits, the source and load should be
equal.
 CHAPTER # 12
CONTENT: SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Q1- DEFINITION OF MATTER?
Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space.
1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Gas

Q2- DEFINE CRYSTAL LATTICE?

In the solid state, atoms are the closest and take on an orderly three-dimensional geometric pattern
called crystal lattice.

Q3- ATOMIC STRUCTURE:

Our present planetary atomic modal was proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913. According to this modal,
an atom is composed of negatively-charged electrons moving in fixed circular or elliptical orbits
around a heavy positively-charged nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.

Q4- NUCLEUS:
The central hard core of an atom is called nucleus. It contains protons and neutrons and other
subatomic particles.

Q5- ELECTRONS:
These are negatively-charged tiny particles whirling around the nucleus in different elliptical orbits
at fantastic speeds.

Q6- ATOMIC NUMBER (Z):

It is equal to the number of protons (or electrons) contained in an atom. For example hydrogen (H),
Z=1.

Q7- ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A):

It gives the total number of protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus of an atom. For example,
Si has 14 protons and 14 neutrons in its nucleus. Hence, its A = 28.

Q8- ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS:

Inside a solid crystal each electron has a different energy level because of slightly different patterns
of the surrounding charges. These electron energy levels form a continuous energy variation called
as energy bands. (1) valence band (2) conduction band

Q9- CHARGE CARRIERS:

A charge carrier is a particle that is free to move, carrying an electric charge in electrical conduction.

Q10- IMMOBILE IONS:

They are not able to move or fixed of ions i.e. positive or negative.
Q11- FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP:
The valence band and conduction band are separated by a gap known as forbidden energy gap.

Q12- BONDS IN SOLIDS:

There are three major types of atomic bonds created by the valence electrons. These are known as
1. Ionic bonds, 2. Covalent bonds, and 3. Metallic bonds.

Q13- IONIC BONDS:

These occur between two different atoms and are due to permanent transfer of valence electrons
from one atom to another. It is very strong bond.

Q14- COVAELNT BONDS:

These can occur between two similar or dissimilar atoms. In this case, there is only sharing of one or
more valence electrons between the two atoms each of which tries to fill up its outermost orbit.

Q15- METALIC BONDS:

As the name indicates, such bonds exist in metals and their alloys. They arise due to sharing of
variable number of electrons by a variable number of atoms.

Q16- WHAT IS CONDUCTION?

The process by which heat flows from the hotter end to colder end in solids is known as conduction.

Q17- CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS:

When part of a solid absorbs heat energy the atoms vibrate faster and with bigger amplitude. These
vibrations pass from atom to atom transferring heat energy as they do so. This process happens in all
solids when heated but is a slow process. This whole process is conduction in solids.

Q18- HOLE FORMATION:

A hole forms in an atom when an electron moves from the valence band into conduction band.

Q19- MOVEMENT OF HOLE:

Holes can move from atom to atom in semiconducting materials as electrons leave their position.

Q20- CONDUCTORS:
Conducting materials are those in which plenty of free electrons are available for electric conduction.
In fact, there is no physical distinction between the two bands. Another point is the absence of
forbidden energy gap in a good conductor.

Q21- INSULATORS:
Stated simply, insulators are those materials in which valence electrons are bound very tightly to
their parent atoms thus requiring very large electric field to remove them from the attraction of their
nuclei. These have
1. Full valence band,
2. An empty conduction band, and
3. A large energy gap (of several eV) between them.
Q22- SEMICONDUCTORS:
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those insulators and good
conductors. Example : germanium and silicon. These have
1. Partially-filled conduction band,
2. A partially-filled valence band, and
3. A very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) between them.

Q23- TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

(i) Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
(ii) Extrinsic or impure semiconductors [(1) N-type (2) P-type]

Q24- INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure
form. Alternatively, an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one in which the number of
conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes. Hence, Fermi level lies in the middle of the
forbidden energy gap.

Q25- EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent has been added in
extremely small amount (about 1 part in 108) are called extrinsic or impurity semiconductors.

Q26- LIST THE USUAL DOPING AGENTS:

1. Pentavalent: Atoms having 5 valence electrons (arsenic, antimony, phosphorus).
2. Trivalent: Atoms having 3 valence electrons (gallium, indium, aluminium, boron).

Q27- DIFFERENTIATE DONOR ATOM AND ACCEPTOR ATOM:

Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or contributes one electron to the
conduction band of pure semiconductor like germanium or silicon. The trivalent atom, on the other
hand, is called acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the germanium or silicon atom.

Q28- TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be subdivided into two
classes:

(a) N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor

(b) P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor

Q29- N-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent material like antimony (Sb) is added to
pure germanium crystal.

Q30- P-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent impurity like boron (B) are added to
a pure germanium crystal.
Q31- DIFFERENTIATE DONOR IMPURITY AND ACCEPTOR IMPURITY:
Antimony is called donor impurity and makes the pure semiconductor as an N-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Boron which is called an acceptor impurity makes the pure semiconductor as P-type
extrinsic semiconductor.

Q32- DIFFERENTIATE MAJORITY AND MINORITY CHARGE CARRIERS:

 The charge carriers that are present in large quantity are called majority charge carriers. The
charge carriers that are present in small quantity are called minority charge carriers.
 In N-type semiconductor, the majority of charge carriers are free electrons whereas the holes
are in minority.
 In P-type semiconductor, the majority of charge carriers are holes whereas the free electrons
are in minority.

Q33- MOBILE CHARGE CARRIERS AND IMMOBILE IONS:

The mobile charge can move in and out of the semiconductor, while the fixed charge does not move
at all. Holes and electrons are movable whereas ions are not movable hence they are immobile.

Q34- DRIFT CURRENT:

The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or electric field is called drift current.
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor material, the charge carriers attain a certain
drift velocity. This combined effect of movement of the charge carriers constitutes a current known as
“drift current”.

Q35- WHY PURE SEMICONDUCTORS ARE INSULATORS AT 0oK?

Because conductivity of semiconductors decreases with decrease in temperature and at 0 K, the
conductivity of semiconductor becomes zero and it behaves as an insulator.

Q36- EXPLAIN EFFECT OF DOPING ON SEMICONDUCTOR:

The purpose of doping is to increase the number of free electrons or holes in the semiconductor
crystal. It increases the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor. In other words it decreases the
resistance of the semiconductor.

Q37- DO PURE SEMICONDUCTORS OBEY OHM’S LAW?

Semiconductors do not obey Oms’s law because I-V characteristics is a curved line instead of straight
line.

Q38- DEFFERENTIATE OHMIC AND NON-OHMIC DEVICES:

Ohmic devices follow Ohm’s law. Wire and resistor.

Non ohmic devices do not follow Ohm’s law. Vacuum tubes and thermistors.
 CHAPTER # 13
CONTENT: THE P-N JUNCTION
Q1- DEFINE P-N JUNCTION?
A P-N junction is an interface or boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely the P-
type and the N-type inside a semiconductor. The plane dividing two halves or zones is called a P-N
junction.
Formation: P-N junctions are formed by joining N-type and P-type semiconductor materials, as
shown below:
FIGURE:

Q2- P-N JUNCTION DIODE:

When a P-N junction is packed as a semiconductor device, it is called a P-N junction diode.

Q3- FORMATION OF DEPLETION LAYER:

The recombination of free and mobile holes and electrons produces the narrow region at the junction
called depletion layer.

Q4- JUNCTION OR BARRIER VOLTAGE (VB):

Depletion region of a P-N junction diode has no free charge carriers but only fixed rows of
oppositely-charged ions on its two sides. Because of this charge separation, an electric potential VB is
established across the junction even when the junction is not connected to any external source of
e.m.f. . It is known as junction or barrier potential. At room temperature of 300o K, VB is about 0.3V
for Ge and 0.7V for Si. Its value depends on doping density, electronic charge and temperature.

Q5- FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION:

 Suppose positive battery terminal is connected to P-region of a semiconductor and the negative
battery terminal to the N-region as shown in figure.
  As soon as battery connection is made, holes are repelled by the positive battery terminal and
electrons are repelled by the negative battery terminal with the result that both electrons and
holes are driven towards the junction where the recombine. This en masse movement of
electrons to the left and that of holes to the right of the junction constitutes a large current flow
through the semiconductor.

Q6- REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION:

 Suppose negative battery terminal is connected to P-region of a semiconductor and the positive
battery terminal to the N-region as shown in figure.

 In this case, holes are attracted by the negative battery terminal and electrons by the positive
terminal so that both holes and electrons move away from the junction and away from each
other. Since there is no electron holes combination, no current flows and the junction offers
high resistance.

Q7- FORWARD V/I CHARACTERISTICS:

 A typical V/I characteristic for a forward biased P-N junction shown in the figure. It is seen that
forward current rises exponentially with the applied forward voltage. This voltage is known as
threshold voltage (VB) or cut-in-voltage or knee voltage VK. It is practically the same as barrier
voltage.
 Figure illustrates what happens as the forward-bias voltage is increased positively from 0 V. The
resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value that will not overheat the diode and cause
damage. With 0V across the diode, there is no forward current.
Q8- REVERSE V/I CHARACTERISTICS:

 It may be noted that reverse saturation current is also referred to as leakage current of the P-N
junction. Figure shows V/I characteristics of a reverse-biased P-N junction. It is seen that a
reverse voltage is increased from zero, the reverse current quickly rises to its maximum or
saturation value.
 When the applied voltage bias voltage is increased to a value where the reverse voltage across
the diode (VR) reaches the breakdown value (VBR), the reverse current begins to increase
rapidly.

Q9- REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT:

The reverse saturation current (Is or I0) is a part of the reverse current in a semiconductor diode which
is caused by the diffusion of minority carriers from the neutral regions to the depletion region.

Q10- KNEE VOLTAGE:

Knee voltage is the forward voltage at which the flow of the current through the P-N junction of the
diode increases rapidly.

Q11- LEAKAGE CURRENT:

Normally, current carriers do not pass through an insulator. It is seen that in a reverse-biased diode,
some current flows through the depletion region. This current is called leakage current.

Q12- JUNCTION BREAKDOWN:

 In P-N junction diodes when it is reverse biased and the voltage gradually increases to a certain
value, there is an increase in reverse current. This is junction breakdown. The reverse voltage
applied at this point is called breakdown voltage of the PN junction diode.
 The breakdown voltage depends on the width of depletion region which in turn, depends on the
doping level.

Q13- ZENER BREAKDOWN:

This form of breakdown occurs in junction which, being heavily doped, have narrow depletion layers.

Q14- AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN:

This form of breakdown occurs in junction which, being lightly-doped, have wide depletion region
where the electric field is not strong enough to produce Zener breakdown.
Q15- JUNCTION CAPACITANCE:
The capacitance associated with the charge variation in the depletion layer is called the junction
capacitance.

Q16- TRANSITION CAPACITANCE (CT) OR SPACE-CHARGE CAPACITANCE:

When a P-N junction is reverse-biased, the depletion region acts like an insulator or as a dielectric
material essential for making a capacitor. The P- and N-type regions on either side have low
resistance and act as the plates. We, therefore, have all the components necessary for making a
parallel-plate capacitor. This junction capacitance is called transition or space charge capacitance (Cpn
or CT). It may be calculated by the usual formula C = εA/d.

Q17- DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE:

Diffusion capacitance is the capacitance that happens due to transport of charge carriers between two
terminals of a device.
 CHAPTER # 16
CONTENT: OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES:
Q1- WHAT ARE OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES?
Optoelectronic devices are the products of a technology that combines optics with electronics.

Q2- EMITTERS:
Devices that convert electricity into light (visible or invisible), called as emitters.

Q3- PHOTONS:
According to the Quantum theory, light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons.

Q4- LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light when energized.

Q5- CONSTRUCTION OF LED:

In order to construct an LED, a layer of P-type semiconductor material is placed above the N-type
semiconductor layer. A metal film is used on the P-type layer to provide anode connection to the
device. Similarly, a gold-film is formed on the N-type layer to provide cathode.

Q6- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURFACE-EMITTENG LEBs AND EDGE-EMITTING LEDs:

 Surface-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the P-N
junction plane.
 Edge-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the P-N junction plane.
Q7- APPLICATIONS OF LEDs:
1. LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems,
2. for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray tubes (CRT);
3. in image sensing circuits used for ‘picture phone’;
4. in data links and remote controllers;
5. in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and numbers) or supplying
input power to lasers or for entering information into optical computer memories;
6. for numeric displays in hand-held or pocket calculators;
Q8- SEVEN-SEGMENT ARRAY:
A seven-segment array of LEDs can form the digits 0 to 9. Each segment contains an LED which can
be turned ON or OFF to form the desired digit. For example, when all segments are ON the digit
formed is 8. If only the centre is OFF, we get zero digit.

Q9- PHOTOEMISSIVE DEVICES:

There are two devices in this category :
(a) photoemissive cell or phototube (b) photomultiplier tube

Q10- PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE:I

It is a phototube in which current is amplified by electron multiplication through secondary emission.
DIAGRAM:

Q11- PHOTOTUBE:
 A phototube or photoelectric cell is a type of gas-filled or vacuum tube that is sensitive to light.
It is also called photoemissive cell.
 A simple tube without any dynodes is called a phototube or photocell.

Q12- PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES:

These are made of either selenium or silicon. When a P-N junction is used without any bias, it is
called a photovoltaic device (or solar cell).

Q13- PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DEVICE:

 When a P-N junction is used with a reverse bias, it is called photoconductive device i.e.,
photodiode.
 It is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies inversely with the intensity of light that
falls upon it. It is also known as photo resistive cell photo resistor because it operates on the
principle of photo resistivity.

Q14- PHOTODIODES:
The devices utilizing reverse biased P-N junctions are called photodiodes.
Q15- BULK TYPE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS:
The bulk type photoconductive devices are made from a single layer of photosensitive material and
have no P-N junction. It is also called photoresistive device.

Q16- APPLICATIONS OF BULK TYPE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS:

1. CdS cells are used in counting applications.
2. CdS cells are used as light meters.
3. As ON-OFF switch.
4. For relay control.
5. As voltage regulator.

Q17- ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BULK TYPE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS:

ADVANTAGES:
1. High sensitivity,
2. Low cost,
3. High dark-to-light resistance ratio exceeding 100:1.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Large response time and
2. Relatively narrow spectral response.

Q18- PHOTODIODES:
A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode. It produces current when it absorbs photons.
They are junction-type photoconductive devices and consists of
1. PN diode 2. PIN diode and 3. Avalanche diode

Q19- P-N JUNCTION PHOTODIODE:

It is two-terminal junction device which is operated by first reverse-biasing the junction and then
illuminating it.

Q20- PIN PHOTODIODE:

It is a three-region reverse-biased junction diode. A layer of intrinsic silicon is sandwiched between
two heavily-doped P- and N-type silicon materials.

Q21- AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE:

It is a P-N junction diode which operates in the avalanche breakdown region.

Q22- APPLICATIONS OF PHOTODIODE:

Applications of photodiode include:
1. Detection,—both visible and invisible
2. Demodulation,
3. Switching,
4. Logic circuits that require stability and high speed,
5. Character recognition,
6. Encoders etc.
Q23- WHAT IS PRINCIPLE OF BULK TYPE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL:
The photoconductive cell is working based on the principle of photoconductive effect. The
photoconductive effect is a process in which the conductivity of a semiconductor material changes
according to the wavelength and intensity of the radiation.

Q24- WHAT POINT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED BEFORE CHOOSING AN LED:

The best way to identify a suitable LED lamp replacement for an existing lamp is to look for the
amount of light the lamp produces.
 CHAPTER # 17
CONTENT: DC POWER SUPPLIES:
Q1- RECTIFICATIONA AND:
The process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification and is accomplished with
the help of
(i) Rectifier
(ii) Filter
(iii) Voltage regulator circuits

Q2- RECTIFIER:
The circuit that is used for the purpose of rectification is known as rectifier.

Q3- TYPES OF RECTIFICATION:

(i) Half Wave Rectification
(ii) Full Wave Rectification

Q4- UNREGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

An unregulated power supply is one whose dc terminal voltage is affected significantly by the amount
of load.

Q5- REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

It is that dc power supply whose terminal voltage remains almost constant regardless of the amount of
current drawn from it.

Q6- TRANSFORMER:
Its job is either to step up or (mostly) step down the ac supply voltage to suit the requirement of the
solid-state electronic devices and circuits fed by the dc power supply.

Q7- RECTIFIER:
It is a circuit which employs one more diodes to convert ac voltage into pulsating voltage.

Q8- FILTER:
The function of this circuit element is to remove the fluctuation or pulsations (called ripples) present
in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier.

Q9- VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

Its main function is to keep the terminal voltage of the dc supply constant even when ac input to the
transformer varies or the load varies.
Usually, Zener diodes and transistors are used for the voltage regulation purposes.
Q10- VOLTAGE DIVIDER:
Its function is to provide different dc voltages needed by different electronic circuits.

Q11- STEADY DC VOLTAGES:

A constant current is a type of direct current (DC) that does not change its intensity with time.
DIAGRAM:

Q12- PULSATING DC VOLTAGES:

Pulsating dc is a periodic current which changes in value but never changes direction.
DIAGRAM:

Q13- RECTIFIERS:
We will consider the following circuits:
1. Half-wave rectifier,
2. Full-wave rectifier,
3. Full-wave bridge rectifier,
4. Voltage multiplier circuits.

Q14- HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

The basic circuit of a half-wave rectifier with a load resistor is shown in figure. The alternating
secondary voltage is applied to a diode connected in series with a load resistor RL.
(a) Working:
(i) During time interval (0 to T/2) the positive half-cycle of the input A.C. voltage, the diode D
is forward-biased and conducts. During conduction, the diode acts as short-circuit (ON
state) so that circuit constitutes the output voltage VL as shown in figure.
The waveform of the load voltage is a half wave rectified sinusoids of peak value VLM.
(ii) During time interval (T/2 to T) the negative input half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased
and does not conduct flow of current through circuit i.e. diode acts as an open-circuit
(OFF state). Hence, there is no voltage drop across RL.
FIGURE:

Q15- FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:

In this case, both half-cycles of the input are utilized with the help of two diodes working
alternatively. For full-wave rectification, use of a transformer is essential.
FIGURE:

(a) Working:
(i) When input is switched on, the ends M and N of the transformer secondary become +ve
and –ve alternately. During the positive half-cycle of the ac input, terminal M is +ve, G
is at zero potential and N is at –ve potential. Hence, being forward-biased, diode D1
conducts and current flows along MD1CABG. As a result, positive half-cycle of the
voltage appears across RL.
(ii) In the negative half-cycle, when terminal N becomes +ve, then D2 conducts and current
flows along ND2CABG. So, we find that current keeps on flowing through RL in the
same direction in both half-cycle of the ac input. It means that both half-cycles of the
input ac supply are utilized as shown in figure. Also the frequency of the rectified
output voltage is twice the supply frequency.

Q16- FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

It is a most frequently-used circuit for electronic dc power supplies. It requires four diodes but the
transformer used is not centre-taped and has a maximum voltage of Vm. The full-wave bridge rectifier
is available in three distinct physical forms.
1. Four discrete diodes,
2. One device inside a four-terminal case,
3. As part of an array of diodes in ac IC.
FIGURE:

(a) Working:
(I) During the positive input half-cycle, terminal M of the secondary is positive and N is the
negative as shown separately in figure. Diodes D1 and D3 becomes forward-biased (ON)
whereas D2 and D4 are reverse-biased (OFF). Hence, current flows along MEABCFN
producing a drop across RL.

(II) During the negative input half-cycle, secondary terminal N becomes positive and M
negative. Now, D2 and D4 are forward-biased. Circuit current flows along NFABCEM
as shown in figure. Hence, we find that current keeps flowing through load resistance RL
in the same direction AB during both half-cycles of the ac input supply. Consequently,
point A of the bridge rectifier always acts as an anode and point C as cathode. The
output voltage across RL is as shown in figure. Its frequency is twice that of the supply
frequency.

Q17- SOME POPULAR FILTER CIRCUITS:

(1) Series inductor filter, (2) Shunt capacitor filter, (3) LC filter (L-type filter) (4) π-filter

Q18- SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER:

In series inductor filter the inductor is connected in series with the rectifier output and the load
resistor. Thus, it is called series inductor filter. The property of an inductor to block AC and provides
zero resistance to DC is used in filtering circuit.
A series inductor filter utilizes the basic property of an inductor by which it opposes any change in
the current flowing through it.

Q19- SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER:

In this circuit, a suitable single capacitor C is connected across the rectifier and in parallel with the
load RL to achieve filtering action. This type of filter is known as capacitor input filter.

Q20- EFFECT OF INCREASING FILTER CAPACITANCE:

Increasing the capacitance:
1. Increases Vdc towards the limiting value Vm ,
 2. Reduces the magnitude of ripple voltage,
3. Reduces the time of flow of current pulse through the diode,
4. Increases the peak current in the diode.

Q21- VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER:

A voltage multiplier is a circuit which produces a greater dc output voltage than ac input voltage to
the rectifier.
OR
A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower voltage to
higher DC voltage, typically using a network of capacitors and diodes.

Q22- USES OF VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER:

These are used to maintain relatively low transformer peak voltage by stepping up the peak output
voltage to two, three, four or more times the peak of the rectified voltage.

Q23- TYPES OF VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER:

1. Half-wave voltage doubler, 2. Full-wave voltage doubler, 3. Voltage tripler
5. Voltage quadrupler.

Q24- HALF-WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER:

It is also known as cascade voltage doubler.
FIGURE:

During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (not D2) and charges C1 to
peak value of secondary voltage (Vm).
During the negative half cycle, D2 conducts (not D1) and charges C2. The voltage across C2 is
the sum of peak supply voltage and the voltage across C1.
Applying KVL:
–Vm – Vm + VC2 = 0 →→ VC2 = 2Vm
During the next positive half-cycle, D2 is open and C2 will discharge through the load if it is
connected. If no load connected across C2, then both capacitors stay charged i.e. C1 to Vm and
C2 to 2Vm. If there is a load connected across C2, it will discharge a little bit and, as a result of
it, voltage across it will drop slightly. But it will get recharged in the next half-cycle.
Q24- FULL-WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER:

During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 (but not D2) and charges capacitor C1 to
the peak voltage Vm.
During the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts (but not D1) charging C2 to Vm. As far as load is
concerned, voltages across C1 and C2 are in series-aiding. If there is no load connected across
the output, then load voltage VL = 2Vm shown in figure. If a load is not connected across the
output terminals, then VL would be less than 2V m.

Q25- VOLTAGE TRIPLER:

During positive half-cycle, diode D1 is forward-biased, diode D2 is reverse-biased and D3 is

forward-biased and capacitors C1,C2, and C3 are discharged initially, and the diodes are ideal
(assumed). Applying KVL.
VC1 = Vm
During negative half-cycle, diode D1 and D3 are reverse-biased. Therefore, they are open
circuited. Where D2 is forward-biased so it is short-circuited. The voltage across capacitor C1 =
+Vm. Applying KVL.
VC2 = +2Vm
Capacitor C2 is charged to voltage VC2 = +2Vm during –ve half-cycle.
For next positive half-cycle, now diodes D1 and D3 are forward-biased and short-circuited and
diode D2 is reverse-biased and open circuited. Therefore, capacitor C3 is getting charged
through D3. Applying KVL.
VC3 = 2Vm.
Capacitor C3 is charged to +2Vm during this second half-cycle.
Vout (across C1 & C3) = +Vm + 2Vm
Vout = +3Vm.
Q26- VOLTAGE QUADRUPLER:

During first positive half-cycle, diode D1 and D3 are forward-biased and D2 and D4 are reverse-
biased. Therefore, C2 and C4 will be open-circuited and only C1 is charged because C3 has no
path to charge. Applying KVL.
VC1 = Vm.
Capacitor C1 is charge to +Vm through diode D1.
During first negative half-cycle, change the polarity and then diode D1 is reverse-biased, D3 is
reverse-biased but D2 and D4 will forward-biased. Therefore, D2 and D4 will be short-circuited
and D1 and D3 will be open-circuited. Applying KVL.
VC2 = +2Vm.
During next positive half-cycle, again diodes D1 and D3 are forward-biased and D2 and D4 are
reverse-biased. Therefore, D1 and D3 are short-circuited and D2 and D4 are open-circuited.
Therefore, C3 will be charged through diode D3. Applying KVL.
VC3 = 2Vm.
During next negative half-cycle, polarity charges and the diode D1 and D3 are reverse-biased
but D2 and D4 are forward-biased. Therefore, D2 and D4 will be short-circuited, D1 and D3 will
be open-circuited. Applying KVL.
VC4 = +2Vm.
Vout = +4Vm.

Q27- TROUBLESHOOTING POWER SUPPLIES:

There are usually two types of problems with power supplies i.e. either no dc output or low dc output.
The situation of no dc output can occur due to any one of the following reasons:
1. When there is no output from he rectifiers,
2. When there is no ac input to power supply,
3. When filter choke is open,
4. When the first input capacitor shorts.
A low dc output can occur in the following situations:
1. Decreased input ac voltage,
2. Open input capacitor of the filter circuit,
3. Partial shorts across the load.

Q28- CONTROLLED RECTIFICATION:

It is rectification in which the output of a rectifier circuit can be varied by controlling the point in the
ac cycle at which the circuit is turned ON.
Q29- OUTPUT WAVEFORMS FOR DIFFERENT FIRING ANGLES:

Q30- SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR):

It is a trijunction PNPN device having three external connections : anode (A), cathode (C) and gate
(G) as shown in the figure.

Q31- PULSE CONTROL OF SCR:

A trigger pulse applied to the gate can switch the device on at any time during the positive half-cycle
of the supply voltage. The SCR continuous to conduct during the rest of the positive half-cycle, and
then it switches off when the instantaneous level of the supply approaches zero. (By google)

Q32- 90o PHASE CONTROL OF SCR:

Q33- 180o PHASE CONTROL OF SCR:

Q34- SCR CONTROLLED RECTIFIER:

Thyristor, or SCR circuits are widely used for power control of both DC and AC systems. The circuits
use a variety of different methods to control the load current flow, but all require the gate to be fired
and the anode cathode voltage to be removed to stop the current flow. (By google)
 CHAPTER # 18
CONTENT: THE BASIC TRANSISTOR:
Q1-THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION:
Basically, it consists of two back-to-back P-N junctions manufactured in a single piece of a
semiconductor crystal. These two junctions give rise to three regions called emitter, base and
collector.

Q2- EMITTER:
It forms the left-hand section of region of the transistor. It is more heavily than any of the other
regions because its main function is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to
the base.

Q3- BASE:
It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very thin (10-6 m) as compared to either the emitter
or collector and is very lightly-doped.

Q4- COLLECTOR:
It forms the right-hand side section (or region) of the transistor. Its main function is to collect majority
charge carriers through the base.

Q5- TRANSISTOR BIASING:

For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of correct polarity across its two
junctions. It is worthwhile to remember that for normal operation.
1. Emitter-base junction is always forward-biased, and
2. Collector-base junction is always reverse-biased.
Q6- TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS:
Basically, there are three types of circuit connections (called configurations) for operating a transistor.
1. Common-base (CB), 2. Common-emitter (CE), 3. Common-collector (CC).

Q7- WHAT IS THE TERM ‘COMMON’?

The term ‘common’ is used to denote the electrode that is common to the input and output circuits.

Q8- CB CONFIGURATION:
In this configuration, emitter current IE is the input current and collector current IC is the output
current. The input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is taken out from the
collector and base.

Q9- CE CONFIGURATION:
Here, input signal is applied between the base and emitter and output signal is taken out from
collector and emitter circuit. IB is the input current and IC is the output current.
Q10- CC CONFIGURATION:
In this case, input signal is applied between base and collector and output signal is taken out from
emitter-collector circuit. Here, IB is the input current and IE is the output current.
 CHAPTER # 30
CONTENT: MODULATION AND DEMODULATION:
Q1- WHAT IS A CARRIER WAVE?
It is a high-frequency undamped radio wave produced by radio-frequency oscillators. As its name
shows, their job is to carry the signal (audio or video) from transmitting station to the receiving
station. The resultant wave is called modulated carrier wave.

Q2- MODULATION:
It is the process of combining an audio-frequency (AF) signal with a radio frequency (RF) carrier
wave. The AF signal is also called a modulating wave and the resultant wave is called modulated
wave.

Q3- DEMODULATION OR DETECTION:

The process of recovering AF signal from the modulated carrier wave is known as demodulation or
detection. The modulation of AM wave involves two operations:
(i) Rectification of the modulated wave, and
(ii) Elimination of the RF component of the modulated wave.

Q4- COMPARISON BETWEEN AM AND FM:

Frequency modulation (FM) has the following advantages as compared amplitude modulation (AM):
1. All transmitted power in FM is useful whereas in AM most of it is in carrier which serves no
useful purpose.
2. It has high signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. It is due to two reasons: firstly, there happens to be less
noise at VHF band and secondly, FM receivers are fitted with amplitude limiters which
remove amplitude variations caused by noise.
3. Due to ‘guard-band’ there is hardly any adjacent-channel interference.
4. Since only transmitter frequency is modulated in FM, only fraction of a watt of audio power is
required to produce 100% modulation as compared to high power required in AM.
However, FM has the following disadvantages:
1. It requires much wider channel-almost 7 to 15 times as large as needed by AM.
2. It requires complex and expensive transmitting and receiving equipment.
3. Since AM reception is limited to only line of sight area or reception for FM is much smaller
than for AM.
 CHAPTER # 30
CONTENT: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS:
Q1- WHAT IS AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT?
To put very briefly, an integrated (IC) is just a packaged electronic circuit.
OR
An IC is complete electronic circuit in which both the active and passive components are fabricated
on an extremely tiny single chip of silicon.

Q2- DIFFERENTIATE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE COMPONENTS:

Active components are those which have the ability to produce gain. Transistors and FETs. Passive
components or devices are those which do not have the ability to produce gain. Resistors, capacitors
and inductors.

Q3- ADVANTAGES OF ICs:

1. Extremely small physical size
2. Very small weight
3. Reduced cost
4. Extremely high reliability
5. Suitability for small-signal operation
6. Low power consumption
7. Easy replacement

Q4- DRAWBACKS OF ICs:

1. Coils or inductors cannot be fabricated,
2. ICs function at fairly low voltages,
3. They can handle only limited amount of power,
4. They are quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat.

Q5- SCALE OF INTEGRATION:

1. SSI—small scale integration
2. MSI—medium scale integration
3. LSI—large scale integration
4. VLSI—very large scale integration
In summary:
SSI < 30
MSI 30 – 100 circuit per chip
LSI 100 – 100,000
VLSI > 100,000
Q6- CLASSIFICATION OF ICs BY FUNCTION:
The integrated circuits can also be classified according to their general function. The two most
important categories are:
1. Linear 2. Digital

Q7- LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS:

LICs are also referred to as analog ICs because their inputs and outputs can take on a continuous
range of values and the outputs are generally proportional to the inputs. As compared to digital ICs,
LICs are used much less. They are frequently used in
1. Operational amplifiers 2. Small-signal amplifiers 3. Power amplifiers
4. RF and IF ampifiers 5. Microwave amplifiers 6. Multipliers etc.

Q8- DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS:

Digital ICs contain circuits whose input and output voltages are limited to two possible levels - low
or high. It is so because digital signals are usually binary. Sometimes, digital circuits are referred to
as switching circuits. Digital ICs include circuits such as
1. Logic gates 2. Flip flops 3. Counters 4. Clock chips 5. Calculator chips etc.

Q9- IC TERMINOLOGIES:
Bonding, Chip, Circuit probing, die, diffusion, diffusion mask, encapsulation, epitaxy,
etching, metallization, photoresist, scribing, wafer

Q10- POPULAR APPLICATIONS OF ICs:

Popular use of ICs is in digital watch. Another popular application of microelectronic technology is
the electronic calculator which can perform various function like addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.

Q11- FABRICATION OF IC COMPONENTS:

(a) Transistor
The NPN transistor is formed by successive impurity diffusion into the N-type epitaxial layer
deposited on the top surface of a P-type substrate.
(b) Diodes
They are formed simply by utilizing the P-N junctions of an integrated transistor.
(c) Diffused Resistors
Most resistors are formed during the base diffusion of the integrated transistor because these
have the highest-resistivity region.
(d) Capacitors
Monolithic IC capacitors are formed by utilizing the transition capacitance of a reverse biased
P-N junction.
(e) Inductors
Presently, there is no feasible process for fabricating inductors as part of monolithic structure.
If required, it must be added externally as discrete component.
 CHAPTER # 30
CONTENT: FIBRE OPTICS:
Q1- OPTICAL FIBRES:
In recent years a new medium called optical fibres OF has been introduced. In OF communication,
light signals are used instead of electrical signals. An OF is a transparent rod usually made of glass or
clear plastic through which light can propagate.

Q2- STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRES:

An optical fibre essentially consists of a very thin fibre at its centre surround by cladding which is
made of a material less denses than the fibre material as shown in figure.

Q3- CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBRES: (AS A LONG QUESTION)

Optical fibres can be classified into three groups according to the way light propagates down the fibre
core.
1. Multimode step-index fibre,
2. Single-mode step-index fibre, and
3. Multimode graded-index fibre.
Difference:
The mode refers to the path the light will travel through the fibres. One of the basic differences
among different types of fibres is their refractive index profile.

□ EXPLAINING ALL GROUPS:

 Figure (a) shows a multimode step-index fibre. The core is made of glass or plastic of a single
index value and the cladding material also has a single index value. There is a single step
between the two index values. Difference between the claddings is relatively large. Three light
rays have been shown traveling along three paths or modes. Due to the difference in their path
lengths, they arrive at the output at different times. The spread of arrival times at the output
causes a distortion known as modal dispersion. Modal dispersion can be removed by using
either single-mode step-index fibres or multimode graded-index fibres.
  The single-mode step index fibre uses a different index with two changes. First, the difference
in the indexes between the core and the cladding is the small. Light rays must travel almost
parallels with the junction of the core and the cladding. Second, the size of the core, is greatly
reduced so that distance from side to side is small and all light paths through the core are
practically of the same length. It is shown in figure (b).
 Figure (c) shows a multimode graded-index fibre, whose core is made with its centre having
an index of refraction which decreases with distance from the centre. The light rays traveling
through the middle part will travels the slowest and those near the edge will travel the fastest.
Hence, all light rays traveling through different parts of the fibre reach the output at the same
time. Since, light rays enter together and also exit together, the modal dispersion is prevented.
FIGURE:

Q4- FIBRE CHARACTERISTICS:

The characteristics of an optical fibre depend on the type of material used and its physical shape and
size. Things such a Glass composition, diameter of the fibre, the variations of the refractive index
within the fibre, imperfections and small bends (called micro bends) directly effects its performance.
Q5- CHOICE OF WAVELENGTH:
Wavelength should be chosen which produces minimum losses and minimum dispersion.
Q6- OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE:
It is a typical glass fibre which is about 100 – 250 µm in diameter. It is brittle and highly susceptible
to damage such as scratches.

Q7- APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION:

1. Fibres are used in applications that are primarily video i.e., broadcast television and cable
T.V., remote monitoring.
2. Fibre systems are particularly suited for transmission of digital data such as that generated by
computers.
3. Military applications of fibre optics include communication, command and control links.
4. Used on aircrafts and ships.
5. It is majorly used for communications.