Workshop/ Manufacturing Practices

Course Code: ES-ME192/ ES-ME 292 Category: Engineering Science Courses

Course Title : Workshop/ Manufacturing Practices Semester : First/ Second
L-T-P : 1-0-4 Credit:3

SYLLABUS
I. Lectures & videos:
Detailed contents:
1. Manufacturing Methods- casting, forming, machining, joining, advanced
manufacturing methods
2. CNC machining, Additive manufacturing
3. Fitting operations & power tools
4. Electrical &Electronics
5. Carpentry
6. Plastic moulding, glass cutting
7. Metal casting
8. Welding (arc welding & gas welding), brazing.

II. Workshop Practice:

❖ Machine shop (8 hours)
Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ To make a pin from a mild steel rod in a lathe.
▪ To make rectangular and vee slot in a block of cast iron or mild steel in a shaping
and / or milling machine.
❖ Fitting shop (8 hours)
Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ To make a Gauge from MS plate.
❖ Carpentry (8 hours)
Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ To make wooden joints and/or a pattern or like.
❖ Welding shop (8 hours (Arc welding 4 hrs + gas welding 4 hrs))
 Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ ARC WELDING (4 hours): To join two thick (approx 6mm) MS plates by manual
metal arc welding.
▪ GAS WELDING (4 hours): To join two thin mild steel plates or sheets by gas
welding.
❖ Casting (8 hours)
Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ One/ two green sand moulds to prepare, and a casting be demonstrated.
❖ Smithy (4 hours) ~ 4 hours
Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ A simple job of making a square rod from a round bar or like.
❖ Plastic moulding & Glass cutting (4 hours)
Typical jobs that may be made in this practice module:
▪ For plastic moulding, making at least one simple plastic component should be
made.
▪ For glass cutting, three rectangular glass pieces may be cut to make a kaleidoscope
using a black colour diamond cutter, or similar other components may be made.
❖ Electrical & Electronics (8 hours)
▪ Familiarization with LT switchgear elements, making its sketches and noting down
its specification. Kitkat fuse, Glass cartridge fuse, Plastic fuse holders (optional),
Iron clad isolators, MCB style isolators, Single phase MCB, Single-phase wire,
wiring cable.
▪ Demonstration of domestic wiring involving two MCB, two piano key switches,
one incandescent lamp, one LED lamp and plug point.
▪ Simple wiring exercise to be executed to understand the basic electrical circuit.
▪ Simple soldering exercises to be executed to understand the basic process of
soldering.
▪ Fabrication of a single-phase full wave rectifier with a step-down transformer using
four diodes and electrolytic capacitor and to find its volt-ampere characteristics to
understand basic electronic circuit fabrication.
Learning Resources:

1. Hajra Choudhury S.K., Hajra Choudhury A.K. and Nirjhar Roy S.K., “Elements of
Workshop Technology”, Vol. I 2008 and Vol. II 2010, Media promoters and publishers
private limited, Mumbai.
2. Kalpakjian S. and Steven S. Schmid, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”,
4th edition, Pearson Education India Edition, 2002.
3. Gowri P. Hariharan and A. Suresh Babu,”Manufacturing Technology – I” Pearson
Education, 2008.
4. Roy A. Lindberg, “Processes and Materials of Manufacture”, 4th edition, Prentice Hall
India, 1998.
5. Rao P.N., “Manufacturing Technology”, Vol. I and Vol. II, Tata McGrawHill House,
2017.
 What is Workshop?
Workshop is a centre of practical learning about

1. engineering materials,
2. manufacturing practices,
3. tools and equipments and
4. safety precautions to be observed in manufacturing operations.

Why to study about Manufacturing Workshop?

Manufacturing processes is a very fundamental subject since it is of interest not only to

mechanical engineers but also to those from practically every discipline of engineering. It is so
because engineering, as a whole, is meant for providing various materials for human consumption.
For various products such as plant machinery required for chemical, civil, electrical, electronic,
textile, etc., the manufacturing process forms a vital ingredient. A detailed understanding of the
manufacturing processes is thus essential for all engineers.

• This helps them appreciate the capabilities, advantages, and also the limitations of the various
manufacturing processes.
• This in turn helps in the proper design of any product required by them.
• Firstly, they would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from their designs.
• They may also find out that there is more than one process available for manufacturing a
particular product, and so they can make a proper choice of the process which would require
the lowest manufacturing cost, and would deliver the product of desired quality.
• They may also modify their design slightly to suit the particular manufacturing process they
choose.

Laboratory Outcomes of Workshop Practices

• Upon completion of this laboratory course, students will be able to fabricate components with
their own hands.
• They will also get practical knowledge of the dimensional accuracies and dimensional
tolerances possible with different manufacturing processes.
• By assembling different components, they will be able to produce small devices of their
interest.

In subsequent sections, we will study in detail about

1. engineering materials,
2. manufacturing practices,
3. tools and equipments and
4. safety precautions to be observed in manufacturing operations.
 Engineering materials
A product designer, tool designer and design engineer should always be familiar with various
kinds of engineering materials, their properties and applications to meet the functional
requirements of the design product. They must understand all the effects which the manufacturing
processes and heat treatment have on the properties of the engineering materials.

Classification of Engineering Materials

• The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituents.
• The ferrous metals commonly used in engineering practice are cast iron, wrought iron, steel
and alloy steels.
• The basic principal raw material for all ferrous metals is pig iron which is obtained by
smelting iron ore, coke and limestone, in the blast furnace.
• The principal iron ores with their metallic contents:
Pig Iron

• It is produced in a blast furnace and is the first product in the process of converting iron ore
into useful ferrous metal.
• The iron ore on initial refining and heating in blast furnace becomes pig iron by sand casting
into pigs which is a mass of iron roughly resembling a reclining pig.
• It is roughly of 20" × 9" × 4" in size.
• Pig iron acts as the raw material for production of all kinds of cast iron and steel products.
• It is obtained by smelting (chemical reduction) of iron ore in the blast furnace.
• It is partly refined in a cupola furnace that produces various grades of cast iron.
• By puddling processes, wrought iron is produced from pig iron.
• Steel is produced from pig iron by various steel making processes such as bessemer, open-
hearth, oxygen, electric and spray steel making.

Cast Iron

• Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon and is obtained by re-melting pig iron with
coke, limestone and steel scrap in a furnace known as cupola.
• The carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.7% to 6.67%.
• It also contains small amounts of silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur in form of
impurities elements.
• Cast iron is very brittle and weak in tension and therefore it cannot be used for making bolts
and machine parts which are liable to tension or shocks.
• It has low cost, good casting characteristics, high compressive strength, high wear resistance
and excellent machinability. These properties make it a valuable material for engineering purposes.
• The compressive strength of cast iron is much greater than the tensile strength.
The carbon in cast iron is present either of the following two forms:
1. Free carbon or graphite.
2. Combined carbon or cementite.
Grey cast iron
Grey cast iron is grey in color which is due to the carbon being principally in the form
of graphite (C in free form in iron). When fractured it gives grey color.
• It possesses high vibration damping capacity.
• It has high resistance to wear.
• It possesses high fluidity and hence can be cast into complex shapes and thin sections.
• Applications
o The grey iron castings are mainly used for machine tool bodies, Machine tool structures
such as bed, frames, column etc.
White cast iron
The white color is due to the fact that the carbon is this iron is in combined form as iron
carbide which is commonly specified as cementite.
• It is the hardest constituent of iron.
• Its name is due to the fact that its freshly broken surface shows a bright white fracture.
• It is very hard due to carbon chemically bonded with iron as iron carbide (Fe3C), which is
brittle also.
• It possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance.
• Since it is extremely hard, therefore it is very difficult to machine.

Wrought Iron

Wrought iron is the assumed approximately as purest iron which possesses at least 99.5%
iron.
• This iron is produced from pig iron by re-melting it in the puddling furnace or air furnace
or reverberatory furnace.
• This iron contains practically no carbon and therefore cannot be hardened
Properties
• The wrought iron can be easily shaped by hammering, pressing, forging, etc.
• It is never cast and it can be easily bent when cold.
 Applications
• It is used for making chains, crane hooks, railway couplings, etc.

Steels

• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up to 1.7%.
• The carbon occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness
and strength of the steel.
• Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present to greater
or lesser amount to import certain desired properties to it.

Plain carbon steel

• Plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It has good machineability and
malleability.
• It is different from cast iron as regards the percentage of carbon. It contains carbon from
0.06 to 1.5% whereas cast iron possesses carbon from 1.8 to 4.2%.
• Depending upon the carbon content, a plain carbon steels can divided to the following
types:
o Dead carbon steel — up to 0.15% carbon
o Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
o Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
o High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon

Low Carbon or Mild Steel

• Low carbon steel is sometimes known as mild steel also. It contains 0.20 to 0.30% C.
• It is tough, malleable, ductile and more elastic than wrought iron.
• It can be easily forged and welded.
• It can absorb shocks.
• It rusts easily.
• Its melting point is about 1410°C.
 • It is used for making angle, channels, case hardening steel, rods, tubes, valves, gears,
crankshafts, connecting rods, railway axles, fish plates, small forgings, free cutting steel
shaft and forged components etc.

Medium Carbon Steels

• Medium carbon steel contains carbon from 0.30 to 0.8%.
High Carbon Steels
• High carbon steels (HCS) contain carbon from 0.8 to 1.5%.
• Because of their high hardness, these are suitable for wear resistant parts.
• They may only be used in the manufacture of cutting tools operating at low cutting speeds.
High speed steel (18:4:1)
• High speed steels (HSS) are most commonly used as material for manufacturing cutting
tools which is operated at much higher speed i.e. twice or thrice of High Carbon steel.
• It is the most common kind of cutting tool material.
• It contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1 % vanadium, 0.8 carbon and remaining iron.
• It is considered to be one of the best of all-purpose tool steels.
• This brand of high speed steel is used for machining operations on steel and non-ferrous
materials.
• This is generally used for lathe, planer and shaper tools, drills, millings cutters, punches
etc.
Stainless steel
• Stainless steel contains chromium together with nickel as alloy and rest is iron.
• It has been defined as that steel which when correctly heat treated and finished, resists
oxidation and corrosive attack from most corrosive media.
• Stainless steel surface is responsible for corrosion resistance.
• Minimum chromium content of 12% is required for the film’s formation, and 18% is
sufficient to resist the most severe atmospheric corrosive conditions.
• A steel containing 18% chromium and 8% nickel is widely used and is commonly
referred to as 18/8 steel.
Availability of steel in market
Steel are available in market in various rolled forms like sheets, plates, strips, rods, beams,
channels, angles, tees etc. as shown in fig. below.
 Manufacturing Processes

To understand different manufacturing processes please watch the video:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1QBbWXmbJFxkb5QNtbhMAo1JwEAoT9jVo/view?usp=sh
aring

Production or manufacturing can be simply defined as value addition processes by which raw
materials of low utility and value due to its inadequate material properties and poor or irregular
size, shape and finish are converted into high utility and valued products with definite dimensions,
forms and finish imparting some functional ability.

A lump of mild steel of irregular shape, dimensions and surface, which had almost no use and
value, has been converted into a useful and valuable product like bolt by a manufacturing process
which imparted suitable features, dimensional accuracy and surface finish, required for fulfilling
some functional requirements.

Production Engineering covers two domains:

(a) Production or Manufacturing Processes
(b) Production Management
Manufacturing Processes
This refers to science and technology of manufacturing products
Production Management
This is also equally important and essential in the manufacturing world. It mainly refers to
planning, coordination and control of the entire manufacturing in most profitable way with
maximum satisfaction to the customers by best utilization of the available resources like man,
machine, materials and money.
In present subject, we will only concentrate on introduction to various manufacturing processes.

There are a large number of processes available for manufacture to engineers. These processes can
be broadly classified into four categories.
1. Casting processes
2. Forming processes
3. Fabrication processes
4. Material-removal processes
1. Casting Processes
• These are the only processes where liquid metal is used.
• Casting is also one of the oldest known manufacturing processes.
• It requires preparation of a cavity usually in a refractory material to resemble closely the
final object to be made.
• Molten metal is poured into this refractory mould cavity and is allowed to solidify.
• The object after solidification is removed from the mould.
• The solidified object is called casting.
2. Forming Processes
• These are solid-state manufacturing processes involving minimum amount of material
wastage and faster production.
• In a forming process, metal may be heated to a temperature, which is slightly below the
melting temperature and then a large force is applied such that the material flows and takes
the desired shape.
• These are generally economical and, in many cases, improve the mechanical properties too.
• Some of the metal-forming processes are
Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Wire and Tube drawing
Sheet metal operations
NOTE:
• Casting and Forming processes are treated as Primary manufacturing processes which
convert raw material or scrap to a basic primary shaped and sized product.
• Secondary manufacturing processes further improve the properties, surface quality,
dimensional accuracy, tolerance, etc.
3. Fabrication Processes
• These are secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw materials are
processed by any of the previous manufacturing processes described.
• It essentially involves joining pieces either permanently or temporarily, so that they would
perform the necessary function.
• The joining can be achieved by either or both of heat and pressure and/ or a joining material.
• Some of the processes of interest in this category are Gas welding, Electric-arc welding,
Electric-resistance welding, Thermit welding, Brazing, Soldering.
4. Material-removal Processes
• These are also the secondary manufacturing processes, where the additional unwanted
material is removed in the form of chips from the blank material by a harder tool, so as to
obtain the final desired shape.
 • Material removal is normally the most expensive manufacturing process because more
energy is consumed and also, a lot of waste material is generated in the process.
• Still this is widely used because it delivers very good dimensional accuracy and good
surface finish.
• It also generates accurate contours.
• Material-removal processes are also called machining processes.
• Various processes in this category are Turning Drilling Shaping and planing Milling
Grinding Broaching Sawing.

Questions for Practice:

1. What do we learn in manufacturing workshop?
2. What is the necessity to study about Manufacturing workshop?
3. Name the shops available in workshop.
4. State the differences between steel and cast iron?
5. Classify the steels according to the percentage of carbon in it.
6. What is the effect of adding carbon in pure iron?
7. Which steel is commonly used as cutting tool material? State its composition.
8. How does different manufacturing processes improve the value of a material?
9. Name 4 common manufacturing processes.
10. Guess the manufacturing method among Casting, Forming, Welding, Machining:
a. Liquid metal is used
b. Improves mechanical properties
c. Joins two different parts
d. Results in very good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Metal Cutting or Machining

• Metal cutting or traditional machining processes are also known as conventional machining
processes.
• These processes are commonly carried out in machine shops or tool room for machining a
cylindrical or flat job to a desired shape, size and finish on a rough block of job material with
the help of a wedge-shaped tool.

Rough metallic block Machining

Machining Products
• The cutting tool is constrained to move relative to the job in such a way that a layer of metal
is removed in the form of a chip.
• Machining processes are performed on metal cutting machines, more commonly termed as
machine tools using various types of cutting tools (single or multi-point).

Machine Tools

• A machine tool is a power-driven metal cutting machine which assist in managing the needed
relative motion between cutting tool and the job that changes the size and shape of the job
material.
• In metal cutting (machining) process, working motion is imparted to the workpiece and cutting
tool by the mechanisms of machine tool so that the work and tool travel relative to each other
and machine the workpiece material in the form of shavings (or swarf) known as chips.
• The machine tools involve various kinds of machines tools commonly named as lathe, shaper,
planer, slotter, drilling, milling and grinding machines etc.
• The machining jobs are mainly of two types namely cylindrical and flats or prismatic.
• Cylindrical jobs are generally machined using lathe, milling, drilling and cylindrical grinding
whereas prismatic jobs are machined using shaper, planner, milling, drilling and surface
grinding.

Cutting Tool
• Cutting tools performs the main machining operation.
• They comprise of single point cutting tool or multipoint cutting tools.
• It is a body having teeth or cutting edges on it.

Body

Cutting edge

Single point cutting tool Multipoint cutting tool

 • A single point cutting tool (such as a lathe, shaper and planner and boring tool) has only
one cutting edge, whereas a multi-point cutting tool (such as milling cutter, milling cutter,
drill, reamer and broach) has a number of teeth or cutting edges on its periphery.
• Commonly cutting tool are made from high speed steel.

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

• The work piece is securely clamped in a machine tool vice or clamps or chuck or collet.
• A wedge shape tool is set to a certain depth of cut and is forced to move in direction as shown
in above figure.
• The tool will cut or shear off the metal, provided the tool is harder than the metal.

Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut

Cutting Speed
• It is defined as the rate at which its cutting edge passes over the surface of the workpiece in
unit time.
• It is expressed in terms of meters per minute.
• Selection of a proper cutting speed has to be made very judiciously.
• If it is too high, the tool gets overheated and its cutting edge may fail.
• If it is too low, too much time is consumed in machining and full capacity of the tool and
machine are not utilized, which results in lowering of productivity and increasing the
production cost.
Feed
• Feed is the distance the tool travels towards the unmachined portion of workpiece after every
pass of the tool.
• Feed rate is feed per unit time.
Depth of Cut
• It is defined as the penetration of cutting edge of the tool into workpiece material in each pass.
Measured perpendicular to the machined surface.
• It determines the thickness of metal layer removed by the cutting tool in one pass.

Feed

Depth of Cut

Turning Operation Shaping

 LATHE MACHINE

• Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world.
• It is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool.
• The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and
size.
• The job is secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck or in between centers on the lathe machine
and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which wi1l remove meta1 from the job in the
form of chips.

Working principal of lathe machine

Principal components of a centre lathe

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock, carriage
and other components of lathe are mounted.

The major parts of lathe machine are given as under:

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Thread cutting mechanism

Bed
• The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted.
• It is massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe.
• On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is
located.
• The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it. Generally, cast iron alloyed
with nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the lathe bed.
Head Stock

• The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe.
• It consists of gear train arrangement, main spindle, cone pulley, back gear arrangement.
• The main spindle possesses chuck to which the work piece can be attached. It supports the
work and revolves with the work.
• The cone pulley is used to get various spindle speed through electric motor.
• The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of slower speeds.
Tail Stock

• Supports long circular job being turned on lathe.

• Holds drill bit for drilling on lathe.

Carriage

• Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a direction parallel
to the spindle axis.
• Upper part is known as saddle with cross-slide.
• The lower part of the carriage is termed the apron in which there are gears to constitute apron
mechanism for adjusting the direction of the feed using clutch mechanism and the split half
nut for automatic feed.
• The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage, which generally travels at right angles to
the spindle axis.
• On the cross-slide, a saddle is mounted in which the compound rest is adjusted which can rotate
and fix to any desired angle.
• The tool post holds the tool holder in place by the tool post screw.

Chucks

• Chuck is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating a job in a lathe.
• It is basically attached to the headstock spindle of the lathe.
Three jaws or universal Chuck Four jaw independent chuck

All 3 jaws move simultaneously when chuck To move a particular jaw chuck key is rotated
key is rotated in one of the key slots. in corresponding key slot. All 4 jaws are
independent of each other.
It can only hold a job of radially symmetrical It can hold a job of any cross section.
cross section e.g., cylindrical
Easy and fast to clamp the job in chuck. To clamp the job, centering is required. It
Centering is not required. requires skill and time.
 Eccentric turning is not possible Eccentric turning can be done
Centering accuracy is lower Centering accuracy is better
Less gripping power More gripping power
Heavier workpieces can’t be held Meant for any kind of job.

SPECIFICATION OF LATHE

The size of a lathe is generally specified by the following means:

• Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways
• Maximum length of the job that can be held between head stock and tail stock centres
• Bed length, which may include head stock length also
• Maximum diameter of the bar that can pass through spindle or chuck.
• Maximum swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over carriage
• Height of centers over bed
• Number of spindle speeds
• Size of electrical motor

LATHE OPERATIONS

Straight Turning: Diameter of job is reduced by a fixed amount.

Step Turning: Diameter is reduced in steps after a decided length of straight turning.
Taper Turning: Gradual and continuous reduction in diameter for the entire length of turning.
Facing: Length of the job is reduced, cross sectional face is machined.
Chamfering: The extreme end of job is beveled by 45o.
Reason of chamfering:
i. To enable nut to pass freely on threaded work piece
ii. To remove burrs and protect the sharp end of the work piece from being
damaged
iii. For better look.

Watch the video to understand Lathe:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fCbndOUkxvIZLSlSu5qmH9mODpofV8hq/view?usp=sharing
 SHAPER

• Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool in which the ram moves the cutting tool
backwards and forwards in a straight line.
• It is intended primarily to produce flat surfaces.
• These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical, or inclined.
• A shaper is used to generate flat (plane) surfaces by means of a single point cutting tool

Principal Parts of Shaper

The main parts are given as under.
• Base
• Column
• Table
• Ram
• Tool head
• Clapper box
Base
• It is rigid and heavy cast iron body to resist vibration and takes up high compressive load.
• It supports all other parts of the machine, which are mounted over it.
Column
• The column is a box shaped casting mounted upon the base.
• It houses the ram-driving mechanism.
• Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the top of the column on which the ram
reciprocates.
Table
• The table is a box like casting having T -slots both on the top and sides for clamping the work.
• It provides crosswise and vertical movements to the work clamped in vice over it.
Ram
• It is the reciprocating part of the shaper, which reciprocates on the guideways provided above
the column.
• Ram is connected to the reciprocating mechanism contained within the column.
Tool head
• The tool head of a shaper performs the following functions-
o It holds the tool rigidly,
o It provides vertical and angular feed movement of the tool, and
 o It allows the tool to have an automatic relief during its return stroke using clapper box.

Working Principle of Shaper

• A single point cutting tool is held in the tool holder, which is mounted on the ram.
• The workpiece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the table.
• The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held in tool holder moves forward and backward
over the workpiece.

• In a standard shaper, cutting of material takes place during the forward stroke of the ram. The
backward stroke remains idle and no cutting takes place during this stroke.
Define speed, feed, depth of cut

SPECIFICATION OF A SHAPER
• The size of a shaper is specified by the maximum length of stroke or cut it can make. Usually
the size of shaper ranges from 175 to 900 mm.
• Type of drive (belt drive or individual motor drive),
• floor space required,
• weight of the machine,
• cutting to return stroke ratio,
• number of stroke
• power of the motor

Crank and Slotted Lever Mechanism

• The time taken during the idle stroke is less as compared to forward cutting stroke and this is
obtained by quick return mechanism.
• It converts rotary motion of motor into reciprocating motion of ram.
• The quiz return mechanism is demonstrated in the following video:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BvpJ3TBWpWv8x9xzaj8gthl5Qh-bier9/view?usp=sharing

Watch video to understand operation of shaper:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HjGoQe7igL-PfcIKkE8emmDxw_5P-P2i/view?usp=sharing
 MILLING
• A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter.
• The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast rate with the help
of multiple cutting edges.
• One or more number of cutters can be mounted simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine.
• This is the reason that a milling machine finds wide application in production work.
• Milling machine is used for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution,
external and internal threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-sections.

PRINCIPLE OF MILLING

• In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting edges.
• For cutting operation, the workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter.
Watch the video to understand the working of milling machine:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1NOb331k2mlnV-KF7JdfQEQFomXPGMT0b/view?usp=sharing

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE

Base
• It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it.
• It carries the column at its one end.
Column
• The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base.
• It is box shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle
and table feed.
• The front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail
guideway for supporting the knee.

Knee
• The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical ways of the
column face.
• An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the height of the knee and it also
supports the knee.
• The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different controls to operate it.
Saddle
• The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guideways set exactly at 90° to the
column face.
• The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the table.
Table
• The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally.
• A lead screw under the table engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by
hand or power.
• The top of the table is accurately finished and T -slots are provided for clamping the work on
vice.
Overhanging arm
• It is mounted on the top of the column, which extends beyond the column face and serves as a
bearing support for the other end of the arbor.
Spindle
• It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears. and clutches and transmit it to the arbor.
Arbor
• It is like an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely mounted
and rotated
SIZE OF MILLING MACHINE
The size of the column and knee type milling machine is specified by
• The dimensions of the working surface of the table,
• Its maximum length of longitudinal, cross and vertical travel of the table.
• number of spindle speeds,
• power available,
• floor space required and
• net weight of machine.

Non-Traditional or Unconventional Machining Processes

• Non-traditional machining processes are also known as un-conventional metal machining or
advance machining processes.
• The recent increase in the use of hard, high strength and temperature resistant materials in
engineering has necessitated the development of newer machining techniques.
• With the exception of grinding, conventional methods of removing material from a workpiece
are not readily applicable to these new materials.
• New materials such as hastalloy, nitralloy, waspalloy, nimonics, carbides etc., are difficult to
machine and which possess tremendous applications in aircrafts, nuclear reactors, turbines,
special cutting tools etc.
• Conventional machining processes when applied to these harder materials have following
difficulties which are given as under.
o Conventional machining processes are uneconomical to these materials,
o Produce poor degree of accuracy and surface finish,
o Produce some stress in the metal being cut whereas newer machining techniques are
essentially stress free.
o These processes are slow and highly insufficient.
Non-traditional or unconventional machining processes may be classified on the basis of the nature
of energy employed in machining,
• Chemical
o Chemical machining (CHM)
• Electro-chemical
o Electro-chemical machining (ECM)
o Electrolytic grinding (ECG)
• Electro-thermal
o Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
o Electron beam machining (EBM)
o Plasma arc machining (PAM)
o Laser beam machining (LBM)
• Mechanical
o Ultrasonic machining (USM)
o Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
o Water jet machining (WJM)

Get basic information about non-traditional machining processes:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ZAnzad-cRNeY2dH6rtojWQxLSnwBTO5m/view?usp=sharing
 FITTING
• Fitting is the assembling of different parts together by removing metals by hand tools to secure
the necessary fit.

Why fitting?
• These days small, medium and heavy industries are using automatic machines. But bench and
fitting work also plays a significant role for completing and finishing a job to the desired
accuracy.
• Most of semi-finished works can be accomplished with fairly good degree of accuracy in a
reasonable time through various kinds of quick machining operations. They still require some
minor operations to be performed to finish the job by hand.

TOOLS USED IN FITTING SHOP

Brief introduction of different tools can be understood in the video with the link:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dT1YA_hDOBjyiBq3150fcpt41DJv5zoB/view?usp=sharing
Tools used in bench and fitting shop are classified as under.
• Marking tools: scriber, prick punch, centre punch,
• Measuring instruments
• Supporting tools
• Holding tools
• Striking tools
• Cutting tools
• Tightening tools, and
• Miscellaneous tools
Some of the most used tools are discussed as under.
Measuring Instruments
Non-precision instruments
1. Steel rule
2. Calipers
3. Dividers
4. Telescopic gauge
5. Depth gauge
(B) Precision instruments
1. Micrometers
2. Vernier calipers
3. Vernier depth gauges
4. Vernier height gauges
5. Slip gauges

Rules

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1MhzuTPWK0
• Rules are straight edge of wood or steel engraved in millimeters- centimeters or in inches-
foot or in both.
• These are used to mark, measure the length, widths and thicknesses of work-piece.

Try Square

• Try square is generally utilized for

o measuring and checking of squareness, perpendicularity of dimensions
o testing of finish of planned surfaces
o drawing parallel and perpendicular lines.
Caliper
• Calipers are generally of two types inside and outside to make internal or external
measurements.
• They do not have direct scale reading.
• They transfer the measurement from jobs to scale or vice versa

Holding Tools
These are vices and clamps.
A bench vice is commonly used in fitting shop for holding a variety of jobs.

Striking Tools
• These are various types of hammers such as ball peen hammer; straight peen hammer;
cross-peen hammer.
Cutting Tools
These involve various types of files, scrapers, chisels, drills, reamers, taps, snip or shear
and hacksaws.
Files
• The widely used hand cutting tool in workshops is the file.
• It is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting rows of teeth.
• It is used to cut, smooth, or fit metal parts.
• It is used to file or cut softer metals.

Flat files: Flat files are generally used for filing flat surfaces in fitting shop.
Triangular files: Triangular files are commonly used for filing corners between 60° and 90°. They
are double cut on all faces.
Square files: Square files are commonly used for filing in corners in jobs. They are double cut on
all sides and tapers.
Round files: Round files are generally used for opening out holes and rounding inside corners.
Smooth files under 15 cm in length are single cut.
Half round files: These files comprise of flat and half round sides. The flat side of half round file
is used for general work and the half round side for filing concave surfaces. These files are double
cut on the flat side. The curved side is single cut, smooth or second cut.
 General classification of files based on shapes or cross sections
Filing Practice: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ktOOAH8JkLQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YLApPJMPcds

Hack Saw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rj17oyyF6ek
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gOqqYSK7SCo
Marking Tools
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnrcLmTBROE
Scribers
• Sometimes called the metal worker’s pencil.
• These are made up of high carbon steel and are hardened from the front edge.
• Scriber is used for scratching lines on the sheet metal during the process of laying out a
job.
Centre Punch
It is used for locating centre for indentation mark for drilling purposes.
Prick Punch
It is used for indentation marks. It is used to make small punch marks on layout lines in order to
make them last longer.
• The angle of prick punch is generally ground to 30° or 40° whereas for centre punch it is
kept 60 °or 90°.

Striking Tools
Hand hammers
There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging: (1) the hand hammer
used by the smith himself and (2) the sledge hammer used by the striker.
Hand hammers may further be classified as (a) ball peen hammer, (b) straight peen hammer, and
(c) cross peen hammer.
• The weight of a hand hammer varies from about 0.5 to 2 kg where as the weight of a sledge
hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg.
 The demonstration of Fitting practices can be understood through the following video:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1lUb8MpDzfUO4UC3kgitKcJWCJOqjNqVQ/view?usp=sharing
 Carpentry

The useful work on wood is being generally carried out in a most common shop known as
carpentry shop.
• The work performed in carpentry shops comprises of cutting, shaping and fastening wood and
other materials together to produce the products of woods.
• Therefore, carpentry shop deals with the timber, various types of tools and the art of joinery.
Some More Information
• Timber is a common name imparted to wood suitable for engineering, construction and
building purposes. Timber is obtained from trees by cutting the main body of tree in the
suitable sizes after the full growth of tree.

• The common types of well recognized timbers available in India are Shisham, Sal, Teak,
Deodar, Mango, Mahogany, Kail, Chid, Babul, Fir wood, Walnut and Haldu,. Out of these,
Deodar, Chid, Kail, Fir wood and Haldu fall in the categories of softwoods and Shisham, Sal,
Teak, Kiker, Mango, Walnut fall in the categories of hardwoods. Some of the other foreign
timbers commonly used in India are Ash, Burma, Hickory, Oak and Pine.
Difference between Hard Wood and Soft Wood
S.N
Hard Wood Soft Wood
o.
1 It is dark in color Its color is light
2 It is heavy in weight. It is light in weight
3 Hard woods are harder and denser. Soft woods are comparatively lighter
4 It has less resin content Few softwoods are resinous.
5 It does not split quickly It gets splitted quickly
6 It is difficult to work. It is easy to work.
It’s annual rings are close and often Its annual rings are well spaced and quit
7
indistinct distinct
8 It is slow growing. It is fast growing.
It has good tensile and shear It has good tensile resistance but is weak
9
resistance. across the fibers.
10 It does not catch fire very soon It catches fire very soon.

FELLING, CONVERSION AND SEASONING OF WOOD

• Cutting of living or standing trees to obtain timber is called felling of trees. Trees are cut at
appropriate time. The best time for sawing the tree is immediately after the tree has achieved
its full growth or maturity age so that the maximum quantity and best quality of wood can
be obtained. If an immature tree is cut, it will carry a lot of sapwood which may not be much
useful for the carpentry work. Contrary to this, if the tree is allowed to stand for long after
 attaining the maturity the most valuable part of timber will be subjected to decay. Therefore
enough care must be taken to see that felling is accomplished only at the appropriate time.
• Conversion means sawing of timber logs into different commercial sizes.
• Seasoning of wood is the reduction of the moisture or sap content of it to the point
where, under normal conditions of use, no further drying out will take place. The main
objective of seasoning is to reduce the unwanted amount of moisture from the timber. As the
moisture contained in the cell walls evaporates, shrinkage of the timber takes place. Therefore for
these reasons green or unseasoned timber should not
used for any work but for rough work. Once the timber is seasoned before use, it will not
shrink, twist or swell during its further use.
PLYWOOD
For the last so many years, the use of the plywood and other manufactured boards has, in
varying degrees have replaced the use of solid timber in the making of furniture, fittings,
paneling and many forms of constructional work. Plywood is generally made of three or more
sheets of veneer glued together, with the grain of successive plys laid cross-wise. Since the
strength of timber lies along the grain, when plys of veneer are bonded in opposing grain
direction, strength is distributed to both length and breadth of the piece. The plywood can be
obtained in much larger sizes without shrinkage and warping in comparison to plain wood.
The molded plywood boats, television and radio cabinets can be formed from plywood. The
plywood can withstand easily against humid condition. Plywood is lighter in weight and
stronger across the grain than even the toughest hardwoods. Screws and nails can be driven
close to the edge of plywood without any danger of splitting. High class surface finish can be
are easily obtained on plywood.

COMMON TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY SHOP

Common hand tools used in carpentry shop can better be understood through the following video
with the link:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Hpi4U_gss-D8pQwhXqdipJVwszmdfoli/view?usp=sharing
Marking and Measuring Tools
Marking in order to make wooden components of the required size or the marking of exact
dimensions on the wooden piece is essential to produce quality jobs. Some of the important
marking and measuring instruments namely Rules, Try Square, Bevel Gauge, Marking Gauge,
Spirit Level and Compass are commonly used for this purpose.
Rules
• Rules are straight edge of wood or steel engraved in millimeters- centimeters or in inches-
foot or in both.
• These are used to mark, measure the length, widths and thicknesses of work-piece.

Try Square

• Try square is generally utilized for

o measuring and checking of squareness, perpendicularity of dimensions
o testing of finish of planned surfaces
o drawing parallel and perpendicular lines.

Marking Gauge

The marking gauge is made of wood which is important tool utilized to make lines at
a uniform distance from the edge of a board or piece of work and is used principally when
preparing wooden components to size before jointing.
Holding and Supporting Tools

Work Bench

Every carpenter generally needs a good solid bench or table of rigid construction of hard
wood on which he can perform or carry out the carpentry operations. Work bench should be
equipped with a vice for holding the work and with slots and holes for keeping the common
hand tools.

Carpenter Vice

• Carpenter vice is very important tool in wood working shops for holding wooden jobs
Clamp

Bar Clamp

G or C Clamp

Clamps are commonly used in pairs in gluing up operations at the final assembly of wood
joinery work. These clamps can provide pressure required to hold joints together until they
are secured due to the setting of glues.

Cutting Tools

Saws
Saws are wood cutting tools having handle and a thin steel blade with small sharp teeth along the
edge.
The rip saw is used for cutting timber along the grains. The teeth of rip saw are chisel-shaped and
are set alternately to the right and left. A 24" long point saw is a good for sawing work.
Tenon Saw
It is lighter and however possesses a thinner blade and finer teeth. The handle is round, to provide
a delicate grip for fine cutting. This saw is used where absolutely finer and delicate cutting is
required in wood work.

Planes
A plane is a special tool with a cutting blade for smoothing and removing wood as shavings. It is
just like a chisel fixed in a wooden or steel body.

Jack plane
Jack plane is most commonly used plane. It is good for rough surfaces that require a heavier chip.
It is ideal for obtaining a smooth and flat surface.

Chisels
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nwtl44RUWVo
A Chisel is a strong sharp edge cutting tool with a sharp bevel edge at one end. Its construction is
composed of handle, tang, ferrule, shoulder, and blade. Chisels are generally made up of high
carbon steel. They are used to shape and fit parts as required in joint making.

Firmer Chisel

Firmer chisel possesses a blade of rectangular section.

Mortise Chisel

Mortise chisel is designed for heavy work. A mortise chisel has a blade which is very nearly square
in section and so may be used as a lever for removing chips and will withstand heavy blows from
a mallet.

Rasps and Files

It is used after planning to obtain a smooth surface. It is also used for cleaning up work at its curved
edges, concave section and other similar work.

Striking tools
• Mallets and various types of hammers are generally used as striking tools in carpentry shop.
• A hammer delivers a sharp blow, its steel face being likely to damage the chisel handle
whereas the softer striking surface such as mallet will give better result.
 Mallet

Claw Hammer

The claw hammer is a striking tool. One of its end possesses curved claw which is used for
extracting nails in order to provide the extra strength needed for this levering action. The other end
is used for light striking work. A strong handle on claw hammer is always necessary for carrying
out the task.

COMMON WOOD JOINTS

 Some extra tools
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_glqvJZ6qLM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tKAPLN-2hOA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ea71-qIoTUs
 WELDING

Welding is a type of Fabrication methods in manufacturing.

FABRICATION METHODS
Joining two or more elements to make a single part is termed a fabrication process.
• A fairly large number of industrial components are made by fabrication processes. Common
examples are aircraft and ship bodies, bridges, building trusses, welded machine frames, sheet-
metal parts, etc.
• The fabrication is often the most economical method.
The various fabrication processes can be classified as follows:
1. Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws and rivets
2. Adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues such as epoxy resins
3. Welding, brazing and soldering

Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws and rivets

• Joining obtained by bolts and screws is temporary in nature and can be disassembled whenever
necessary.
• Rivets are semi-permanent fastening devices, and the joint can be separated only by destroying
the rivet without harming the parent elements.

Adhesive bonding does not disfigure the joining parts, but would generally have less strength than
the mechanical fasteners. But adhesive bonding helps in joining awkward-shaped parts or thin
sheets which may not lend themselves to mechanical fastening.

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat.
Sources of heat in welding:
The heat may be generated from:
1. combustion of gases
2. electric arc
3. electric resistance
4. chemical reaction→Thermite Reaction.

• During some type of welding processes, pressure may also be employed, but this is not an
essential requirement for all welding processes.
• Welding provides a permanent joint.
Application of Welding:
The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of
the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile
bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Welding Joints

Following joints are commonly prepared in welding:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ZqakzQ31pWDxZnGomDTJe3yDm3eB6C6U/view?usp=sharing
Butt Joint
In this type of joint, the edges are welded in the same plane with each other.

Lap Joint
This type of joint is used in joining two overlapping plates so that the corner of each plate is joined with
the surface of other plate.

T-Joint
When two surfaces are to be welded at right angles, the joint is called T-Joint. The angle between the
surfaces is kept 90°.

Corner Joint
In this joint, the edges of two sheets are joined and their surfaces are kept at right angle to each
other. Such joints are made in frames, steel boxes, etc.

Edge Joint
In this joint two parallel plates are welded edge to edge.
Difference between Square Butt Joint and V or U Butt Joint
The edges of the joint shown above are straight (Square). This type of edge preparation is
used when the thickness of the two pieces to be joined is small, so that heat of welding penetrates
the full depth of the joint.

Straight (Square)
However, when the thickness increases, it becomes necessary to prepare the edge in such
a way that heat would be able to penetrate the entire depth. To facilitate this, the joint is widened.
To provide the necessary access into the joint, it could be made as a V or U.

The V-joint is easier to make but the amount of extra metal to be filled in the joint increases
greatly with an increase in the thickness. From this account, an U-joint is preferable, since the
amount of extra metal to be added to fill the joint is generally less beyond a certain plate thickness.
However, machining an U-joint is more difficult compared to a V-joint.
For very thick plates, the welding needs to be done from both sides. The double-V and
double-U edge preparations are used when welding is to be carried from both sides.

Welding Positions
There are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1FbdKEA0H8UieP5asK8U1ZToHHXYQnxgt/view?usp=sharing
1. Flat or down hand position
2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position

Flat or Downhand Welding Position

• The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the
upper side of the joint
• The face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
• This is the simplest and the most convenient position for welding. Using this technique,
excellent welded joints at a fast speed with minimum risk of fatigue to the welders can be
obtained.
Horizontal Welding Position
• In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical
• the deposited weld head is horizontal.
• The metal deposition rate in horizontal welding is next to that achieved in flat or downhand
welding position.
• This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.
Vertical Welding Position
• In vertical position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical
• the weld is deposited upon a vertical surface.
 • It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of the force of
gravity on the molten metal. The welder must constantly control the metal so that it does
not run or drop from the weld.
• The vertical-down welding is used for a sealing operation and for welding sheet metal.
Overhead Welding Position
• The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position.
• Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater. The force of the flame
against the weld serves to counteract the pull of gravity.
• In overhead position, the plane of the workpiece is horizontal. But the welding is carried
out from the underside.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING

Advantages
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as compared to other processes
(riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints having strength equal or
sometimes more than base metal.
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by welding.
4. General welding equipment is not very costly.
5. Portable welding equipment can be easily made available.
6. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
7. Welding can also be mechanized.
Disadvantages
1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.
2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position the parts to be welded
5. Edges preparation of the welding jobs are required before welding.
6. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding.
 7. Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as the structure of the welded joint is
not same as that of the parent metal.

Different Welding Processes

Based on the sources of heat during welding, different welding methods are categorized. Most
common are described below:
1. Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding Processes
In this welding, a fuel gas is used along with oxygen or air as source of heat.
For example,
Air-acetylene welding
Oxy-acetylene welding
Oxy-hydrogen welding
2. Arc Welding Processes
In this welding, electric arc is used as source of heat.
For example,
Carbon Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Manual Metal Arc Welding)
Submerged Arc Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
In Resistance Welding, the resistance between two components is used to generate required
heat.
In Friction Welding, the friction between the two components with relative motion is used as
source of heat.

In syllabus we need to study

GAS WELDING PROCESSES
ARC WELDING PROCESSES
 GAS WELDING PROCESSES
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHPIWTHmqPc
A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air and
fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas welding’.
The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded,
generally with the addition of a filler metal.

Gas Welding Operation

In gas welding processes, we will study only Oxy-Acetylene welding. It is the most commonly
used welding process.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding
• In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch and
ignited.
• The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal.
• The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3300°C and thus can melt most of the
ferrous and non-ferrous metals in common use.
• A filler metal rod or welding rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to build up the
seam slightly for greater strength.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding Setup

 Oxy-Acetylene Welding Setup

Welding Torch

Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders. These gas cylinders differ widely
in capacity, design and colour code. However, in most of the countries, the standard size of these
cylinders is 6 to 7 m3
Acetylene cylinder
• It is painted maroon.
• An acetylene cylinder is filled with some absorptive material, which is saturated with a
chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb a large volume of acetylene
and release it as the pressure falls.
Oxygen gas cylinders
• Oxygen cylinder is painted black.
• It is usually equipped with about 40 litres of oxygen at a pressure of about 154 Kgf/cm2 at
21°C.
 • To provide against dangerously excessive pressure, such as could occur if the cylinders
were exposed to fire, every valve has a safety device to release the oxygen before there is
any danger of rupturing the cylinders.
• Fragile discs and fusible plugs are usually provided in the cylinders valves in case it is
subjected to danger.
Gas pressure regulators
Gas pressure regulators are employed for regulating the supply of acetylene and oxygen
gas from cylinders. A pressure regulator is connected between the cylinder and hose leading to
welding torch.
• The cylinder and hose connections have left-handed threads on the acetylene regulator while
these are right-handed on the oxygen regulator.
• A pressure regulator is fitted with two pressure gauges, one for indication of the gas pressure
in the cylinder and the other for indication of the reduced pressure at which the gas is going
out.
Welding torch
It is a tool for mixing oxygen and acetylene in correct proportion and burning the mixture
at the end of a tip. Gas flow to the torch is controlled with the help of two needle valves in the
handle of the torch.
Torch tips
It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just prior to their ignition
and burning.
Hose pipes
The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the pressure regulators. The most common
method of hose pipe fitting both oxygen and acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber hose pipe.
Green is the standard color for oxygen hose, red for acetylene, and black hose for other
industrially available welding gases.
Goggles
These are fitted with colored lenses and are used to protect the eyes from harmful heat and
ultraviolet and infrared rays.
Gloves
These are required to protect the hands from any injury due to the heat of welding process.
Spark-lighter
It is used for frequent igniting the welding torch.
Filler rods
Gas welding can be done with or without using filler rod. When welding with the filler rod, it
should be held at approximately 900 to the welding tip. Filler rods have the same or nearly the
same chemical composition as the base metal.

Types of Welding Flames

In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the welding joint
and the welding process. The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory
welds. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate with maximum
efficiency. There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames.
a. Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions).
b. Carburizing welding flame or reducing (excess of acetylene).
c. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).
The gas welding flames are shown below:

Neutral Flame
• In all the oxy-fuel gas welding processes, the combustion takes place in two stages.
• The first reaction takes place when the fuel gas such as acetylene and oxygen mixture burn
releasing intense heat. This is present as a small white cone.
• For the oxy-acetylene welding, the following reaction takes place in this zone.
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + 448 kJ/ mol (18.75 MJ/ m3 of acetylene)
• The carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen produced in the first stage further combine with the
atmospheric oxygen and give rise to the outer bluish flame, with the following reaction.
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + 812 kJ/ mol (35.77 MJ/ m3).
• Though higher amount of heat is produced in the second stage, since it is distributed over a
larger area, the temperature achieved is small (of the order of 1200 to 2000 ° C) in the flame,
which may be used for preheating the steels.
• The inner white cone temperature is of the order of 3100 ° C, which is used for directly melting
the steel joint.

Carburising Flame

Oxidizing Flame

Neutral Welding Flame

1. A neutral flame results when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed
in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip.
2. The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3100-3200°C.
3. It has a clear, well defined inner white cone, indicating that the combustion is complete.
4. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen in the air
and superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is
Usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
5. A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change on the molten metal and,
therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal.
6. The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, cast Iron,
copper, and aluminium.

Carburising or Reducing Welding Flame

1. The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene and can be recognized by acetylene
feather, which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope.
2. The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter
in color.
3. With iron and steel, carburizing flame produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron
carbide.
4. A reducing flame has an approximate temperature of 2900-3000°C.
5. A reducing flame ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition.
6. It is used for welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g., non-ferrous)
that do not tend to absorb carbon.
7. This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.
Oxidising Welding flame
1. The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen over the acetylene.
2. An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small cone, which is shorter, much bluer in color
and more pointed than that of the neutral flame.
3. The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end.
4. Such a flame makes a loud roaring sound.
5. It is the hottest flame (temperature as high as 3300-3400°C) produced by any oxy-fuel gas
source.
6. But the excess oxygen especially at high temperatures tends to combine with many metals to
form hard, brittle, low strength oxides.
7. Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a
scummy or dirty appearance. For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding.
8. It is not used in the welding of steel.
9. A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding (i) Copper-base metals (ii) Zinc-base metals
and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals such as manganese steel and cast iron.
10. The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases, create a base metal oxide that protects the base metal.

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgImySEyYHY
The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a workpiece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process.

Manual Metal Arc Welding Setup

This is one of the most widely used welding process, mainly because of the ease of use and
high production rates that can be achieved economically.

Principle of Arc
An arc is generated between two conductors of electricity, cathode and anode (considering
direct current, dc), when they are touched to establish the flow of current and then separated
by a small distance.
An arc is a sustained electric discharge through the ionised gas column called plasma between
the two electrodes.
• It is generally believed that electrons liberated from the cathode move towards the anode
and are accelerated in their movement. When they strike the anode at high velocity, a large
amount of heat is generated. Also, when the electrons are moving through the air gap
between the electrodes, also called the arc column, they collide with the ions in the ionised
gas column between the electrodes. The positively charged ions, moving from the anode
 and would be impinging on the cathode, thus liberating heat. About 65 to 75% of the total
heat is liberated at the anode by the striking electrons. A temperature of the order of 6000
° C is generated at the anode.
• But even with an arc of the alternating current (ac), would be similar, with the main
difference that the cathode and anode would change continuously. As a result, the
temperature across the arc would be more uniform, compared to a dc arc.
• The maximum rated, open-circuit voltage, which is the voltage between the output
terminals when no welding is being done, is normally fixed at about 80 V. This is the
maximum and normally, a voltage of the order of 40 to 50 V should be enough for starting
an arc, whereas for continuous welding 20 to 30 V is sufficient.

Electrodes
The electrodes are used for providing heat input in arc welding.
They are of two types:
1. Consumable electrodes
a. Functions of providing a filler metal and heat are both built into a single electrode.
b. They may be made of steel, cast iron, copper, brass, bronze or aluminium.
2. Non-consumable electrodes.
a. They may be made of carbon, graphite or tungsten.
b. The carbon and graphite electrodes are used only in dc welding, whereas tungsten
electrodes are used for both ac and dc welding.

A consumable electrode, used in welding, can be either bare or coated. The coated electrode
also called stick electrode, is used for the manual-arc-welding process.
The coatings on the electrodes serve a number of purposes:
• The coatings give off inert gases such as carbon dioxide under the arc heat, which shields
the molten metal pool and protects it from the atmospheric oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
pick-up, thus reducing contamination of the weld metal.
• The coatings provide flux to the molten metal pool, which mixed with the oxides and other
impurities present in the puddle, forms a slag. The slag being lighter, floats on the top of
the puddle and protects it against the surrounding air during the weld bead solidification.
Manual Metal Arc Welding
• The manual metal arc welding also called the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is the
most extensively used manual welding process, which is done with stick (coated)
electrodes.
• In India, it still, is the most used arc-welding process
• It is used extensively, for both simple as well as sophisticated jobs.
• The equipment is least expensive
• Welds by this process can be made in any position.
• Job of any thickness can be welded. Thicknesses, below 3 mm, may give rise to difficulty
in welding because of their lack of rigidity. Above 20 mm, may take a long time for filling
up the joint groove.
• The shielded metal arc welding can be done with either ac or dc power source. The typical
range of the current usage may vary from 50 to 500 A with voltages from 20 to 40 V.
Limitations
• Slow speed. weld-metal deposition rates in the range of 1 to 8 kg/ hr in the flat position.
• A lot of electrode material is wasted in the form of unused end, slag and gas.
• More chances of slag inclusions in the bead.
Electrode holder

Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it.
Hand Screen

Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
 Chipping hammer

Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.

Wire brush

Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

Protective clothing
Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct
heat to the body.

SOLDERING
Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by means of a filler metal, called solder, having melting temperature not
exceeding 450°C and below melting temperature of the base material.
• Solders are essentially alloys of lead and tin.
• Soldering is normally used for obtaining a neat leak proof joint or a low resistance electrical
joint. The soldered joints
• They are not suitable for high temperature service because of the low melting temperatures of
the filler metals used.
• The soldering joints also need to be cleaned meticulously to provide chemically clean surfaces
to obtain a proper bond.
• To remove the oxides from the joint surfaces and to prevent the filler metal from oxidizing,
fluxes are generally used in soldering.
• Rosin and rosin plus alcohol based fluxes are least active type and are generally used for
electrical soldering works.
• soldering iron is a copper rod with a thin tip which can be used for flattening the soldering
material. The soldering iron can be heated by keeping in a furnace or by means of an internal
electrical resistance whose power rating may range from 15 W for the electronic applications
to 200 W for sheet metal joining.

BRAZING
• Like soldering, brazing is a process of joining metals without melting the base metal.
• Filler material used for brazing has melting temperature above 450°C and below the melting
temperature of the base metal.
• Brazing is a much widely used joining process in various industries because of its many
advantages.
• Due to the higher melting point of the filler material, the joint strength is more than in
soldering.
• Almost all metals can be joined by brazing except aluminum and magnesium which cannot
easily be joined by brazing.
• Dissimilar metals, such as stainless steel to cast iron can be joined by brazing.
 Casting
There are a large number of processes available to engineers for manufacturing objects from raw
materials.
These processes can be broadly classified into four categories.
1. Casting processes (Molten metal is solidified to desired shape)
2. Forming processes (Metal is deformed into desired shape by applying pressure)
3. Fabrication processes (Different parts are joined together to get desired shape)
4. Material-removal processes (Extra metal is removed from blank to get desired shape).

Casting Processes
• These are the only processes where liquid metal is used.
• Casting is also one of the oldest known manufacturing processes.
• It requires preparation of a cavity usually in a refractory material to resemble closely the final
object to be made. Molten metal is poured into this refractory mould cavity and is allowed to
solidify. The object after solidification is removed from the mould. The solidified object is
called casting.

What is Sand Casting?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw

Casting an Iron Wheel in Factory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eTr8cscmx-M

Advantages
• Any intricate shapes, internal or external, can be made.
• It is possible to cast practically any material, be it ferrous or nonferrous.
• The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result,
for trial production or production of a small lot, it is an ideal method.
• It is possible in the casting process to place the amount of material where it is exactly required.
As a result, weight reduction in design can be achieved.
• Casting of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons can be made.

Limitations
• The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by the normal sandcasting process
would not be adequate for final application in many cases.
• The sandcasting process is labour intensive to some extent.

Some of the applications of the sandcasting process:

1. Cylinder blocks of IC engine

2. Machine-tool beds

BED
3. Water-supply pipes

4. Bells.

etc.

Steps in Casting

The metal casting process has been divided into the following five major operations:
Obtaining the Casting Geometry: The process is referred as the study of the geometry of
parts and plans, so as to improve the life and quality of casting.

Pattern making: In pattern making, a physical model of casting, i.e. a pattern is used to
make the mold. The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregated materials, like
molding sand, around the pattern. After the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint leaves the mold cavity
that is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. n case, the castings is required to be
hollow, such as in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, known as cores, are used to develop
these cavities.

Coremaking & Molding: In core making, cores are formed, (usually of sand) that are
placed into a mold cavity to form the interior surface of the casting. Thus, the annul space between
the mold-cavity surface and the core is what finally becomes the casting.
Molding is a process that consists of different operations essential to develop a mold for receiving
molten metal.

Alloy Melting and Pouring: Melting is a process of preparing the molten material for
casting. It is generally done in a specifically designated part of foundry, and the molten metal is
transported to the pouring area wherein the molds are filled.

Casting Cleaning: Cleaning is a process that refers to the different activities performed
for the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting. However, all the operations may
not apply to each casting method but such processes play an important role to comply with
environmental guidelines.
Casting Terms

• A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. It is made up of wood for
temporary applications or more generally of metal for long-term use.
• Drag: Lower-moulding flask.
• Cope: Upper-moulding flask.
• Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece moulding.
• Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
• Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
• Pouring Basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured.
• Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the mould
cavity. In many cases, it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
• Runner: The passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated
before they reach the mould cavity.
• Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters the mould cavity.
• Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting, so that hot metal can flow back
into the mould cavity, when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to solidification.
Sand-Mould-Making Procedure

1 2

4 5
3

7
6

9
8

10

11,12
13
1. First, a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or on the floor, making the
surface even. The drag-moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the
drag part of the pattern at the centre of the flask on the board. There should be enough clearance
between the pattern and the walls of the flask, which should be of the order of 50 to 100 mm.
2. Dry-facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a nonsticky layer. Freshly
prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on the pattern to
a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.
3. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backing sand and uniformly rammed to
compact the sand. The ramming of the sand should be done properly, so as not to compact it
too hard, which makes the escape of gases difficult, nor too loose, so that mould would not
have enough strength.
4. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scrapped using a flat bar
to the level of the flask edges. Now, with a vent wire, which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter
with a pointed end, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to
the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during casting solidification. This completes the
preparation of the drag.
5. The finished drag flask is now rolled over, to the bottom board exposing the pattern as shown
in Fig. 5.
6. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired, and cope-half of the pattern is
placed over the drag pattern, aligning it with the help of dowel pins. The cope flask on top of
the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins.
7. The dry-parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern. A sprue pin for making
the sprue passage is located at a small distance of about 50 mm from the pattern. Also, a riser
pin, if required, is kept at an appropriate place.
8. Freshly prepared moulding sand similar to that of the drag along with the backing sand is
sprinkled. The sand is thoroughly rammed, excess sand scraped and vent holes are made all
over in the cope as in the drag.
9. The sprue pin and the riser pin are carefully withdrawn from the flask. Later, the pouring basin
is cut near the top of the sprue.
10. The cope is separated from the drag and any loose sand on the cope-and-drag interface of the
drag is blown off with the help of bellows.
11. Now the cope and the drag-pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and rapping
the pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould cavity, so that the mould walls are not
spoiled by the withdrawing pattern.
12. The runners and the gates are cut in the mould carefully without spoiling the mould. Any excess
or loose sand found in the runners and mould cavity is blown away using the bellows. Now the
facing sand in the form of a paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners, which
would give the finished casting a good surface finish.
13. The mould now, as shown in Fig. is ready for pouring.

HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP

In foundry shop, mould making, melting of metal and further casting steps are carried out.

Hand riddle
Hand riddle consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh equipped with circular wooden
frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing foreign material such as nails, shot
metal, splinters of wood etc. from it. Even power operated riddles are available for riddling large
volume of sand.

Shovel
Shovel consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It is used in mixing, tempering
and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for moving and transforming the
molding sand to the container and molding box or flask.
Rammers
Rammers are required for striking the molding sand mass in the molding box to pack or compact
it uniformly all around the pattern.

Sprue pin
Sprue pin is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold cavity
while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed. Later its withdrawal from cope produce a
vertical hole in molding sand, called sprue through which the molten metal is poured into the
mould using gating system.

Strike off bar

Strike off bar is a flat bar having straight edge and is made of wood or iron. It is used to strike off
or remove the excess sand from the top of a molding box after completion of ramming thereby
making its surface plane and smooth.

Draw spike
Draw spike is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the other.
It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern for it withdrawal from the mold.
Vent rod
Vent rod is shown is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and a
wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is
utilized to pierce series of small holes in the molding sand in the cope portion. The series of pierced
small holes are called vents holes which allow the exit or escape of steam and gases during pouring
mold and solidifying of the molten metal for getting a sound casting.

Gate cutter
Gate cutter is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut runners and feeding gates
for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.

Bellows
Bellows gun is hand operated leather made device equipped with compressed air jet to blow or
pump air when operated. It is used to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the surfaces of
mold cavities.
Patterns
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications.
The dimensions of the pattern are different from the final dimensions of the casting required.
Pattern size = casting size ± allowances.
• Allowances
• Shrinkage Allowance
• Machining Allowance
• Draft Allowance
• Shake allowance
• Distortion Allowance

All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps bismuth.

• Shrinkage of metal during casting will takes place in three stages

1. Shrinkage of molten metal when reducing from pouring temp to freezing temp. (Liquid
Shrinkage)
2. Shrinkage of molten metal during freezing. (Liquid Shrinkage)
3. Shrinkage of solid metal when reducing from freezing temp to room temp. (Solid Shrinkage)

Pouring Temp. = Freezing Temp. (Melting Temp.) + (150-200) °C.

 • Liquid shrinkage is compensated by providing riser during mould making.

• Metal in the riser should solidify in the end.

• Riser volume must be sufficient for compensating shrinkage in casting.
• Shrinkage allowance is provided on the pattern to compensate the solid shrinkages.
Machining Allowance
The finish and accuracy achieved in sandcasting are generally poor and, therefore, when the casting
is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally
achieved by subsequent machining. Also, ferrous materials would have scales on the skin, which
are to be removed by cleaning. Hence, extra material is to be provided which is to be subsequently
removed by the machining or cleaning process.

Pattern Materials
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastics. The most commonly used pattern
material is wood, the main reason being the easy availability and the low weight. Also, it can be
easily shaped and is relatively cheap. But the main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of
moisture as a result of which distortions and dimensional changes occur.

Ingredients of Moulding Sand

The main ingredients of any moulding sand are, the silica grains (SiO2), the clay (as binder), and
moisture (to activate the clay and provide plasticity). Besides, some other materials are also added
to these to enhance the specific properties of moulding sands. E.g.,

Coal Dust
It is basically used for providing better surface finish to the castings. This when comes into contact
with the molten metal would provide a gaseous envelope to keep the molten metal from fusing
with the sand thus providing good surface finish.

Questions

1. Explain in brief different steps in casting.

2. What is the reason of wide application of casting?
3. Draw a neat sketch of a sand mould. Briefly describe various parts of sand mould.
4. What is the use of a pattern?
5. How does a pattern differ from actual casting product?
6. Why is allowance provided over pattern?
7. Why is riser prepared in sand mould?
8. Which is the most commonly used pattern material? Why?
9. What are the ingredients of moulding sand?
 Metal Forming Processes

• Mechanical forming processes are used to achieve optimum mechanical properties in the metal.
• Metal forming reduces any internal voids or cavities present, and thus make the metal dense.
• The impurities present in the metal also get elongated with the grains and in the process they
get broken and dispersed throughout the metal.
• This decreases the harmful effects of the impurities and improves the mechanical strength.
• Metal forming imparts Plastic deformation in the material.
• Plastic deformation is the deformation which is permanent and beyond the elastic range of
the material.
• The necessary deformation in a metal can be achieved by application of large amount of
mechanical force only, or by heating the metal and then applying a small force.
• The wastage of material in metal-working processes is either negligible or very small, and the
production rate is in general very high.

Some of the metal-forming processes are

Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Wire and Tube drawing
Sheet metal operations

Rolling
• Rolling is a process where the metal is compressed between two rotating rolls for reducing its
cross-sectional area.
• Rolling would be able to produce components having constant cross section throughout its
length. Many shapes such as I, T, L, and channel sections are possible, but not very complex
shapes.
• Some rolled products are shown below

Wire Drawing and Tube Drawing

Die

The process of wire drawing and tube drawing is to obtain wires and tubes from rods and tubes of
bigger diameter through a die.
Extrusion

Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a closed cavity and then allowing it to flow from
only one opening so that the metal will take the shape of the opening. The operation is identical to
the squeezing of toothpaste out of the tooth paste tube.
Some products of different forming methods are shown below:
 FORGING
Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force is applied to manipulate the
metal in such a way that the required final shape is obtained.

Two types of operations are used in forging in order to arrive at the final object configuration.
They are as follows.
1) Drawing Out or Drawing Down: This is the operation in which the metal gets elongated
with a reduction in the cross-sectional area. For this purpose, the force is to be applied in a
direction, perpendicular to the length axis.

Drawing Out

Force

2) Upsetting: This is applied to increase the cross-sectional area of the stock at the expense of
its length. To achieve the upsetting, force is applied in a direction parallel to the length
axis.

Force Upsetting

Smith Forging or Smithy

The process involves heating the stock in the blacksmith’s hearth and then beating it over the anvil.
To get the desired shape, the operator has to manipulate the component in between the blows.
Applications of forging
• Almost all metals and alloys can be forged.
• The low and medium carbon steels are readily hot forged without difficulty, but the high-
carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge and require greater care.
• Forging processes are among the most important manufacturing techniques utilized widely in
manufacturing of small tools, rail-road equipments, automobiles and trucks and components
of aeroplane industries.
• These processes are also extensively used in the manufacturing of the parts of tractors,
shipbuilding, cycle industries, railroad components, agricultural machinery etc.

FORGING TEMPERATURES
• A metal must be heated to a temperature at which it will possess high plastic properties to carry
out the forging process.
• Excessive temperatures may result in the burning of the metal.
• Insufficient temperatures will not introduce sufficient plasticity in the metal to shape it properly
by hammering etc.
• The temperature to start the forging for soft, mild steels is 1,250 to 1,300°C, the temperature
to finish forging is 800 to 840°C.
Heating Device in Forging
Hearth
• Forgeable metals are heated either in a hearth or in a furnace.
• The hearths are widely used for heating the metals for carrying out hand forging operations.
Furnaces are also commonly used for heating metals for heavy forging.
• Gas, oil or electric-resistance furnaces or induction heating can be used as fuel in hearth. Gas
and oil are economical, easily controlled and mostly used as fuels.
• In some cases, coal and anthracite, charcoal containing no sulphur and practically no ash are
the chief solid fuels used in forging furnaces.
• Forge furnaces are built to raise temperatures up to 1350°C in their working chambers. They
should be sufficiently large to allow proper combustion of the fuel, and to obtain uniform
heating of the forging jobs.
 Typical hearth

Understand Forging:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZToka1-8oQA

ADVANTAGES OF FORGING IN COMPARASION TO CASTING AND MACHINING

Because of inherent improvement in the grain size and introduction of un-interrupted grain
flow in the structure of finished forged component forging has the following advantages in
comparison to casting and machining. Some of such advantages are given as under.
(i) Greater strength and toughness.
(ii) Reduction in weight of the finished part.
(iii) Saving in the material.
(iv) Elimination of internal defects such as cracks, porosity, blowholes, etc.
(v) Ability to withstand unpredictable loads during service.
(vi) Minimum of machine finish to be carried out on the component especially when it
is forged in dies.

COMMON HAND FORGING TOOLS

Tongs
The tongs are generally used for holding work while doing a forging operation.
Flatter
Flatter is commonly used in forging shop to give smoothness and accuracy to articles which have
already been shaped by fullers and swages.
Swage
Swage is used for forging work which has to be reduced or finished to round, square or hexagonal
form

Hand hammers
There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging: (1) the hand hammer
used by the smith himself and (2) the sledge hammer used by the striker.
Hand hammers may further be classified as (a) ball peen hammer, (b) straight peen hammer, and
(c) cross peen hammer.
• The weight of a hand hammer varies from about 0.5 to 2 kg where as the weight of a sledge
hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg.
Anvil

An anvil is a most commonly tool used in forging shop. It acts as a support for blacksmith’s work
during hammering. The body of the anvil is made of mild steel with a tool steel face welded on the
body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel faced.
Precautions in Smithy Shop:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-FN4M77qyA
Questions for Practice:
1. Why do forming processes result in improved mechanical properties?
2. What is Plastic deformation?
3. Match the following:
a. Extrusion Metal is compressed between two rolls
b. Forging Metal is pulled out from a die
c. Rolling Identical to squeezing of toothpaste out of its tube
d. Wire Drawing Hot metal is beaten over anvil by hammer
4. What are the advantages of forging over casting?
5. How can you differentiate between Drawing Down and Upsetting operation?
6. State the use of following tools in forging shop:
Tongs, Flatter, Anvil, Sledge hammer, Hearth
 GLASS CUTTING

Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid and is often transparent to light.

Silica (SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass and therefore called silicate glass.

Types of glasses and their applications

1. Fused quartz or fused-silica glass or vitreous silica glass: It is used for high temperature
applications such as tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.
2. Soda-lime-silica glass or window glass: It is used for windows, tableware and light bulbs.
3. Sodium borosilicate glass or Pyrex: It is used for chemical glassware, cooking glass, car
head lamps etc.
4. Lead-oxide glass or crystal glass or lead glass: It is used in factories and can be easily cut.
5. Aluminosilicate glass: It is used for fibreglass, glass reinforced plastics, boats, fishing
rods and halogen bulb glass.
6. Germanium-oxide glass: It is used for fibre-optic waveguides in communication network.

Properties of Glass

1. Glass has the ability to reflect, refract and transmit light. These properties can be modified by
the addition of other materials.
2. Silicate gass can be poured, formed, extruded and moulded into various forms from flat
sheets to highly intricate shapes.
3. It is extremely durable. under most conditions.
4. It is erosion resistant and can withstand the action of water
5. It is fairly inert substance
6. It is resistant to chemical attack
7. It does not react with food
8. It is corrosion resistant. Glass flakes are used as anti-corrosive coating.

• Most of the glasses are brittle in nature. Brittle means any crack produced in the material can
propagate easily to the complete thickness of the material and the material will fracture in
 any arbitrary shape. So, It is very difficult to cut the glass and one must be very cautious
while cutting it to get proper shape.
• Unlike glass, metal is ductile in nature. So, any crack produced in material does not
propagate easily. So, the cutting of metal can be controlled very easily.

Glass Cutter

• A glass cutter is a tool used to make a shallow score in one surface of a piece of glass that is
to be broken in two pieces. The scoring makes a split in the surface of the glass which
encourages the glass to break along the score.
How to cut glass and mirror? Watch:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goRcunMEF2I
• A glass cutter may use a diamond to create the split, but more commonly a small cutting wheel
made of hardened steel or tungsten carbide 4–6 mm in diameter with a V-shaped profile called
a "hone angle" is used.
• The effective cutting of glass also requires a small amount of oil (kerosene is often used) and
some glass cutters contain a reservoir of this oil which both lubricates the wheel and prevents
it from becoming too hot: as the wheel scores, friction between it and the glass surface briefly
generates intense heat, and oil dissipates this efficiently. When properly lubricated a steel
wheel can give a long period of satisfactory service.
notches for
snapping Ball for
tapping
hardened steel Handle
cutting wheel

Hone angle

Diamond Tip
 Plastic Moulding

Plastics are non-metallic materials in the form of natural and synthetic resins and their compounds.
Plastics are superior to metals in many ways:
1. Plastics have good insulating properties against heat and electricity.
2. They have good corrosion resistance.
3. They can be easily formed to different shapes.
4. They have good surface finish and don't need machining.
5. Many plastics are transparent.
6. They have good colouring properties.
7. Plastics are very light.
8. They have good sound absorption properties.
The plastics have certain limitations also.
• Low impact strength to withstand fracture.
• Unstable to withstand distortions and shrinkage.
• Plastics have high thermal expansions.
Plastics have main applications in the following areas:
• Structural components
• Adhesives
• Heat and sound insulations
• Surface protecting material
• Glazing insulations
• Lighting and electrical accessories
• Pipes, fittings and sanitary appliances.
• Building components such as boxes, panels, veneers, plumbing.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
Plastics can be broadly classified as follows:
1. Thermoplastics can be remelted to manufacture new products. These are of two types:
a. Crystalline plastics:
i. Polyethylene or polythene used for fabrics, bottles and trades.
ii. Polyamides
 iii. Polyacetyl
iv. Polypropylene used for bottles, trays, tubes.
b. Amorphous Plastics:
i. Polystyrene used for lenses, battery boxes, radio parts
ii. Methacrylate
iii. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used for plastic wood, water tubes, gramophone
records
iv. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
v. Cellulose used for films, window screens, gas masks artificial silk
vi. Perpex
2. Thermosetting Plastics: These plastics cannot be reused. These can be melted once only.
These can be easily shaped or bent by applying moderate pressure and temperature. They have
high strength. These are marketed under different trade names and have wide applications.

FABRICATION OF PLASTICS

Plastics are available in industry in the following forms:

1. Powder or granules
2. Sheets, rods and tubes
3. Liquid resins and adhesives

Various methods are used for fabrication of plastic articles. The commonly used methods are as
follows:
1. Moulding
a. Injection moulding
b. Compression moulding
c. Blow moulding
d. Transfer moulding
e. Rotational moulding
f. Thermoforming
g. Spreading
h. Extrusion
 i. Casting
j. Calendering
k. Welding
l. Lamination
m. Reinforcing with glass and other fibres.

INJECTION MOULDING
Injection moulding of plastics is the most widely used method of production of components of
thermoplastic. Recently this method is used for thermosetting resins also.

Process
The process consists of the following stages:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QglJLrwDPxE
1. The plastic resins or pellets are fed into the cylinder through a feeder hopper.
2. The resins are pushed to the heating cylinder tube by a reciprocating ram.
3. The melted plastic is forced through the nozzle into the chilled mould. The length of
mould can be adjusted to suit moulding size.
4. The ram is held under pressure for a few seconds to allow the moulding to solidify and
cool.
5. The ram is retracted slightly to open the mould.
6. Knock-out pins help to eject the moulded piece.
7. The sprue and runners are trimmed off in a separate trimming press.

Advantages
1. Injection mbulding prövides the highest production rate.
2. The article is produced at low cost.
3. A large number of parts can be produced rapidly.
4. The process is completely automatic and 300 to 400 shots per hour can be achieved.
5. There is no need for finishing operations.

COMPRESSION MOULDING
Compression moulding is most widely used processing of thermosetting plastics. It is essentially
a forging Process where a measured quantity of the polymer is placed in a heated die. The two
dies (moulds) are pressed together in a hydraulic press.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOGpXZ-UMfo

Transfer Moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DUB9DoIoi8

Extrusion Moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5lO-6SpSooE

Making of Plastic Chairs in Industry

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=USg7An6OIPE