FOOD ADDITIVE DYES

Colour and its Basis

Colour has always fascinated man for appeal, aesthetics and social
reasons. Dyes and pigments have been major articles of trade throughout history
because the manufacture of virtually all commercial products involves the
introduction of colour at some stage. Approximately 9,000 colourants identified
with over 50,000 trade names are currently in use. This large number is as a
result of the range of desired shades and varieties, the chemical nature of the
materials to be coloured and the direct relationship between colour and the
molecular structure of a dye/colourant.
When a compound is coloured; it absorbs visible light i.e. gains energy at
the excitation of its electrons and presents a colour that is complimentary to that
of the absorbed light. Unlike most organic compounds, dyes are coloured
because they: (1) absorb light in the visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum (400–700 nm), (2) have at least one chromophore (colour-bearing
group), (3) have a conjugated system i.e. a chemical structure with alternating
double and single bonds and (4) exhibit electron resonance (a stabilizing force
in organic compounds). The absence of any of these features in the molecular
structure of an organic compound results to loss of colour. In addition to
chromophores, most dyes also contain a group known as auxochromes or colour
helpers, examples of which are carboxylic (COOH) and sulphonic acid (SO 3H)
as well as amino (NH2) and hydroxyl (OH) groups. Auxochromes are not
responsible for colours, but their presence in a dye molecule can shift or alter
the colour of such a dye or colourant, hence, they are often used to influence the
solubility of dyes.

Definition of a Dye
A dye is a substance used to impart colour to textiles, paper, leather and
other materials such that the colouring is not easily altered by washing, heat,
sunlight or any other environmental factors to which the material may be
exposed to. Dyes differ from pigments, which are finely ground solids dispersed
in a liquid such as an oil, paint or ink or blended with any other materials. Dyes
are generally organic compounds (i.e. contain carbon) whereas pigments may
be either inorganic (i.e. do not contain carbon) or organic compounds. Pigments
generally exhibit brighter colours and may be insoluble dyes suspended in a
liquid medium. Succinctly put, dyes and pigments are both colourants that differ
by their solubilities; in that while dyes are soluble in both water and organic
solvents, pigments are insoluble in either medium types. For this reason,
pigments must be suspended or dispersed by a physical method such as
agitation. Dyes are used to colour substrates for which they have affinity alone
but pigments can be used to colour any polymeric substrate through a
mechanism different from that of dyes. A colorant can act either as a pigment or
a dye depending on the vehicle used.

Food and its Colour

Food is the energy source that influences the state of health. Its colour is
the number one factor of attraction and stimulates appetite and choice for a
particular food. The colour of a food provides among other things a means to
evaluate the degree of ripeness, sweetness and decay, perceive and assess the
aroma and quality as well as obtain visual information about the phytochemical
properties necessary for good health.

Colour Additives
A colour additive is any dye, pigment or substance that can impart colour
alone or through reaction with other substances when added or applied to a
food, drug and cosmetic or to the human body. The Food and drug
administration in any country (NAFDAC in Nigeria) is responsible for
regulating all food additives to ensure that colour additives containing foods are
safe to consume, contain only approved colourants and are correctly labelled. In
the US, FD&C numbers, assigned to synthetic colourants by the US- FDA and
E numbers, assigned to both synthetic and natural additives by the EU are used
globally to indicate the approval of such colourants for use in foods, drugs and
cosmetics. . For example, E100–199 colours are as follows: 100–109 yellows;
110–119 orange; 120–129 reds; 130–139 blues and violets; 140–149 greens;
150–159 browns and blacks;160–199 gold and others. Food colouring agent,
food colourant, colourant, colour additive and food dye are all synonyms. Food
colourants are used both in domestic cooking and commercial/ industry food
production. They are added to foods at the preparation, production and
packaging stages. Processed food such as candies, snacks, margarine, cheese,
soft drinks and jam/jelly, gelatine, pudding and pastry fillings all contain
colourants.

Why Add Colourant?

Colour additives are added to foods for a number of reasons such as to: 1)
offset colour loss due to exposure to the environment, viz. light, air, extreme
temperatures, moisture and storage conditions; 2) correct natural variations in
colour; 3) enhance naturally occuring colours; 4) provide colour to colourless
and “fun” foods; 5) protect flavours and vitamins from damage by light; 6)
decorate or for artistic purposes; 7) improve appeal to appetite and desirability
of a food; 8) mask defects and 9 ) sustain freshness in the taste of certain foods
for longer periods.

Apart from salting and smoking done to preserve meat in medieval times,
nitrate was used to enhance the colour of meat and prevent botulism (food
poisoning). As early as 400 BC, Egyptians regulated the colour of wine and
confectionery products with colourants. Vegetable products like saffron, carrot,
mulberry and flower, various pigments of animal origin and copper and iron
minerals were some of the natural food colourants used in the middle of the 9 th
century.
Food colourants impart a brown, yellow and green shades respectively
to cola beverages, margarines and mint ice cream. Colourants have been
accepted as essential components of virtually all edible processed foods. They
differ from one other by chemical structures, sources and the effect they
produce.

Classification of Colourants

Guidelines on food colourants are studied in 3 groups viz: 1).

Colourants whose acceptable daily intake (ADI) values are determined and
allowed for use 2). Colourants permitted to use only for special purposes (such
as surface finishing using CaCO3, aluminium, silver and gold) and 3).
Colourants that are allowed to be used only in some foods (titanium dioxide,
vegetable carbon, red beet). Use of colourants outside these 3 classifications is
prohibited and different implementations are employed at National Legislations
to enforce ban on the addition of colourants to soft drinks, milk, flour and
tomato paste. Colourants classification according to the 3 groups is
complicating, hence, they are classified into two groups as natural or synthetic
depending on their sources.

Natural Colourants

Natural food colourant is any dye, pigment or any other substance

that is obtained from vegetable, animal or mineral source and is capable of
colouring food. Natural colours are a part of human nutrition and they come
from many sources such as seeds, fruits, vegetables, algae and insects.
Chlorophylls, carotenoids and anthocyanins are consumed with food every day.
The use of natural colourants dates back to 2600 years ago. Natural food
colourants are used globally and are safer and healthier than synthetic ones.
Good and natural looking foods and drinks are associated with esteem quality
by a majority of people while the reverse is the case with faded and artificial
shining products. Moreover, addition of beetroot, grape, cabbage, paprika etc
produced from known sources creates a feeling of safety and easy
familiarization to the consumers while promoting product acceptability.

Organic Natural Food Colourants

Natural colouring matters are synthesized by plants and animals;
including microorganisms and they naturally exist in them. There is a great
advocacy in favour of natural food colourants as a way to avoid processed food.
To this end, natural dyes such as: carotenoids, chlorophyll,
anthocyanins and turmeric have been used as food colourants for centuries.
Carotenoids

The 40 carbon atoms containing polyunsaturated hydrocarbon

carotene molecule of carotenoids has a deep red, yellow or orange colour. The
most common carotenoid, B-carotene is probably is responsible for the bright
orange (product of yellow and red colours) colour of carrots, potatoes,
cantaloupe melon and pumpkins. It is fat soluble, hence a first choice for
colouring typically high fat content dairy products. Consequently B -carotene is
often added to margarine and cheese. B -apo-8' carotenal, methyl ester of B -
apo-8' carotenoic acid and ethyl ester of B-apo-8' carotenoic acid which exist in
the form of dark or red violet powder or crystals with a metallic lustre are
permitted natural colourants of the B -carotene group. They are used in the
production of soft drinks, confectionaries, coatings, soups, sweets and sauces.
Certainly, the consumption of much B -carotene containing foods turns the skin
pigment to a harmless orange colour.

Chemical structure of B -carotene molecule

Anatto (E160b)
 Annatto, Aka Roucou, a derivative of the achiote tree; native to Brazil is
one of the oldest known natural carotenoids used as a food colourant. Annatto is
a pigment derived from the reddish pulp pericarps of achiote (Bixa orellana L.)
tree seeds. Characterized by a yellow-orange food colouring property, it is used
in smoked fish, various beverages, bakery products, rice and custard powder.
Annatto is also used especially in dairy products such as cheeses, butter and
margarine.

Anatto

Lycopene and Lutein

Lycopene and lutein are another carotenoid colourants. Characterized by a
dark red and viscous appearance, lycopene is the main colouring matter in ripe
tomato while yellow colour imparting lutein is the main colouring matter in
xanthophylls.

Trans Lycopene

Paprika Extract
Paprika is a spice obtained from ground dried fruits of capsicum annuum
(e.g. bell or chili peppers). The seasoning is used to add both colour and flavour
to dishes. Paprika ranges from sweet (mild, not hot) to spicy (hot). The
important pigments found in red pepper (paprika) are a mixture of capsanthin
and capsorubin. Both are carotenoids responsible for the red colour of the dye.
 Fresh and ground paprika
Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are the best natural sources of polyphenolic pigments.
They are responsible for the various colours of many fruits and vegetables
ranging from red to deep purple and blue. Grapes, red beets, elderberry,
blueberries, cranberries and blackcurrant used in the food industry owe their
rich colours to this organic compound. Unlike carotenoids, the anthocyanin
family of colourants are water soluble, hence, they can be used to colour water-
based foods. Blue corn chips, bright colour soft drinks and jellies are often dyed
with anthocyanins. There are over 500 anthocyanins which are based on the
flavylium ion below as the basic structure.

Chemical structure of flavylium ion. R 1 and R2 are functional groups and R3 is a sugar
molecule.

Vegetable Carbon
Known variously as Vegetable Black, Carbo vegetabilis or carbon black
is the only natural colour that provides black or grey shades. It is used in
candies, ice-creams and frozen sorbet (desserts, sweets, puddings, iced fruits).

Chlorophyll:
 Chlorophyll, a pigment found in all green plants is another natural
colourant. It is used in bakery and dairy products as well as mint- or lime-
flavoured foods such as candy, cereals, jams and jellies. Ice creams are
sometimes coloured using chlorophyll. It is also used as a complementary
colour to dim the yellowish colour of cheese. The molecular structure of 55-
Carbon chlorophyll A consists of a chlorin ring, whose 4 nitrogen atoms
surround a central magnesium atom and has several other attached side chains
and a hydrocarbon tail.

Chlorophyll A

Caramel
Caramel is not obtained directly from plants or animals but is
produced by heating the sugars from these organisms. Caramel is the name
given to the distinctive taste, odour and the amber colour produced by heating
sugar. It is added to various food products. Caramels constitute more than 80%
of all food colourants and are classified according to their methods of
production.

Bugs
Insect bugs are used to impart red colour and strawberry flavour to
yogurt, cranberry juice, ice cream and some pastries. Its use started when a
manufacturer extracted the deep-red carminic acid dye from Dactylopius coccus
(Cochineal); a local insect, native to America and deliberately added it to food.
The harmless carminic acid dye was adopted for use in a variety of food and
cosmetic products requiring a red colour. Its solution is stable above pH 6.
 Chemical structure of carminic acid
The thought of eating bugs did not appeal to some people and in response to
customer complaints, some companies that added cochineal dye in its
strawberry-flavoured products discontinued with the additive.

The female cochineal bug

The use of additive bugs can be verified by looking for carmine, carminic acid,
cochineal or Natural Red 4 on the ingredients list of any food product. Though
the substances are considered safe, in rare instances, however, people can
demonstrate a severe allergic reactions to them leading to a life-threatening
condition called anaphylactic shock.

Sepia officinalis L. (Female Cuttlefish)

This pigment, called Sepiaxanthine has a concentrated orange-red
colour. It is used as a colourant in the preparation of pasta and sauce. Black
pasta is prepared with ink from cuttlefish. Natural Sepia, Crimson (from
Kermes Louse) and Tyrian purple (Murex shellfish) are other important
colourants obtained from animals.

Turmeric:
Turmeric, aka curcumin is a plant that is cultivated in many tropical
countries, typically India where it grows as an underground stem. Another
natural dye, it is the main colouring pigment in turmeric and curry spices. It is
used globally as a food colourant in dairy products, beverages, cereals, mustard,
food concentrates, pickles, sausages, confectionery, ice cream and bakery
products. In combination with anatto, turmeric is used to colour seasonal sauces,
mayonnaise and butter.

Turmeric/ Curcumin Chemical structure of turmeric/ Curcumin

Beetroot Red
The colour pigments present in red beet are red and yellow. Used mostly
in the production of ice cream, dairy products, jams and jellies, red beet gives a
strawberry colour to low temperature confectioneries.

Beetroot Red
Riboflavin
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is used as a yellow colourant in many food
products such as sorbet, various drinks, sweets and ice cream. Though a
preference in the preparation of cereal based products, riboflavin has limited use
due to its odour and bitter taste. Its use is prohibited in many countries.

Monascus Purpureus
This is a red pigment secreted by Monascus purpureus fungus. Its
various properties makes it a favourite colourant in the preparation of traditional
foods in some countries. Its use is yet to be regulated in developed countries,
but this water-soluble pigment, characterized by a tendency to lower cholesterol
levels has been used in confectionery and red rice wine production in Japan for
many years.
 Inorganic Natural Colourants

Aluminium dust and silver used to impart silver and grey; gold for real
gold, iron oxides for yellow, red, brown or black and titanium dioxide for white
colours as well as calcium carbonate for opaque appearance are significant
inorganic natural colourants. They are used to make confectionery coatings,
decorate liquor, chocolates, chewing gums and bread.

Synthetic Colourants

Synthetic or artificial colourants are not found in nature, instead they

are obtained by chemical synthesis. The purplish-lilac colour, obtained in 1856
by W. H. Perkin using coal tar as raw material was the first synthetic organic
colour. Coal tar is derived from coal and early critics of synthetic food
colourants emphasized it, thus fostering a chenge to the present day synthesis of
food dyes from crude oil or petroleum as raw materials. Oil consumption is
arguably unhealthier than coal consumption, but appropriate processing steps
and quality tests are undertaken that guarantee the turning out of
wholesomeness and petroleum free products. The synthetic variety of the plant-
based indigo dye, used to dye blue jeans, indigotine or Blue No. 2 is
nonetheless, a non-petroleum-based dye.

Why Go Artificial; why bother with synthetic food colourings?

Synthetic food colourants show to be more advantageous over

natural colourants in the following ways: They outshine natural colourants due
to their higher colouring ability; they present a wider variety of colour tones;
offer a homogeneous colour distribution; show to be brighter, sharper and more
aesthetic; are more stable and equipped to last longer than natural ones of the
same colour; demonstrate better water and oil dissolution properties as well as
superior ease of application. Even though numerous varieties of colours are
found in nature, only a limited few suitably serve as food dyes whereas the
variety of synthetic food colourants are limitless. Moreover, synthetic dyes can
be mass-produced at a little cost in comparison with the huge cost of gathering
and processing materials used for making natural colourings.
 Natural colourants are less stable to heat, light or pH changes and their
production volume is inadequate to meet industry demand. They quickly fade
on exposure to light and show little resistance to acids and slight elevations to
temperature. For example, Anatto turns pink from yellow while chlorophyll
turns brown from green at low pH. Secondly, colourants which originate from
natural sources cost higher than their synthetic counterparts. For example,
natural red and yellow colourants cost 100 times more than synthetic products
that produce the same effect.
Colourants such as caramel, vegetable carbon and Cu-chlorophylline
produced by modification of materials obtained from nature are classified as
natural, although, only carbon out of all is found in nature. Nature identical
colours are man-made colourants that are similar to those found in nature.
Carotene, canthaxanthin and riboflavin are nature identical colours.
Limitations of usage based on the amount added in any given condition is the
disadvantage of using synthetic colourants.

Classification of Synthetic Colourants

Synthetic colourants are divided into 3 groups according to their

solubilities: 1- Water Soluble Synthetic Colourants; 2- Fat Soluble Synthetic
Colourants and 3- Lake Colourants.

1. Water Soluble Synthetic Colourants

The following water soluble synthetic colourants are recognized:

1a. Amaranth
Aka FD&C Red No. 2, E123, C.I. Food Red 9, Acid Red 27,
Azorubin S.C.I. 16185, Amaranth with a molecular formula of
C20H11N2Na3O10S3 appears as a water-soluble, reddish-brown- dark red- purple
anionic azo dye powder. Even though it has been banned in the US since 1976,
it is legal in the UK where it is commonly used to colour glace cherries.
 Amaranth

1b. Allura Red AC

Known variously as Allura Red, Food Red 17, C.I. 16035, FD&C
Red 40 and E129, Allura Red AC with molecular formula: C18H14N2Na2O8S2 is a
red azo dye originally introduced in the US as a replacement for amaranth. It
usually comes as the sodium, calcium and potassium salts of a dark red water
soluble powder. Initally produced from coal tar, it is now mostly made from
petroleum. Allura Red AC is used in the production of foods like carbonated
drinks, snacks, sauces, soups, wine and chewing gums. Denmark, Belgium,
France, Switzerland, Austria, Norway and Sweden have proscribed its use but
the European Union upholds it.

Allura Red AC

1c. Sunset Yellow

Aka Orange Yellow S; FD&C Yellow 6, E110 and C.I. 15985, Sunset
yellow is a synthetic coal tar azo yellow or orange red dye used in the
preparation of fermented foods that must be heated such as bread and crumbs,
cereals, sweet powders and snacks. Idenified by a molecular formula of
C16H10Na2O7S2N2, Sunset yellow may also be found in orange squash, orange
jelly, marzipan, apricot jam, citrus marmalade, lemon curd, sweets, packet
soups, hot chocolate, trifle and cheese sauce mixes, soft drinks, ice cream, astro
peach yogurt, fortune cookies, some red sauces and other yellow, orange and
red food products.

Sunset Yellow

1d. Brilliant Black BN

Identified by many names, including (E151), Food Black 1; 1743
Black; Blue Black BN; Brilliant Acid Black; Certicol Black PNW; Cilefa Black
B; E 151; Edicol Supra Black BN; Hexacol Black PN; L Black 8000; Melan
Black and Xylene Black and a molecular formula of C28H17N5Na4O14S4, Brilliant
Black BN is a synthetic black water soluble diazo dye that is available as a
solid, fine powder or granules. It is used to decorate food and coatings and in
the preparation of various cheeses, wines, sauces, desserts and beverages like
sweets, ice cream, mustard, red fruit jams, soft drinks, flavoured milk drinks,
fish paste, lumpfish caviar and other foods.

Brilliant Black BN

1e. Brilliant Blue FCF

Known variously as FD&C Blue No.1, E133, Acid Blue 9, D&C Blue
No. 4, Alzen Food Blue No. 1, Atracid Blue FG, Erioglaucine Eriosky blue,
Patent Blue AR and Xylene Blue VSG, Brilliant Blue FCF with molecular
formula: C37H34N2Na2O9S3 is a water soluble reddish-blue dye powder
synthetized from coal tar.
 Brilliant Blue FCF
It can appear as Aluminium Lake and can be combined with tartrazine to
produce various shades of green. The dye is poorly absorbed from the gastro-
intestinal tract and in addition reacts with certain bile pigments to form green
faeces.

1f. Tartrazine:
Tartrazine, FD&C Yellow 5, E102, C.I. 19140 or trisodium (4E)-5-
oxo- 1-(4-sulfonatophenyl)-4[(4sulfonatophenyl) hydrazono] - 3-
pyrazolecarboxylate is a water soluble synthetic lemon- yellow azo dye
commonly used to impart yellow and lemon-yellow colours and to a lesser
extent, used with Brilliant Blue FCF or Green S to produce various shades of
green. Tartrazine is added to food products such as bread, beverages, cereals,
peanuts, confectionery, cream, ice cream and canned food.

Tartrazine Green S

1g. Erythosine
Erythrosine, E127, Red No. 3 is a cherry-pink synthetic fluorine food
colourant that exists both as a red powder or granules. Characterized by a
benzoate structure, it is the disodium salt of 2,4,5,7-tetraiodofluorescein
belonging to the xanthen Class. It is added to flavoured milk and puddings, ice
products, chewing gum, popsicles and candies, jelly and drink powders and
even more widely used to colour cake-decorating gels and pistachio shells.

Erythosine

1h. Quinoline Yellow

Known as Food Yellow 13 or E104 is a water-soluble synthetic
mixture of di (principally), mono and trisulphonates of 2-(2-quinolyl) indan-1,3-
dione and another dye/colourant. It is used to create a dull yellow or greenish
yellow colour. It is used in soft drinks, jams and canned foods, edible ice,
sweets, candies, pickles, sauces and spices.

Quinoline Yellow

Quinoline Yellow SS (Spirit Soluble) is the sulphonate group free analogue that
is insoluble in water.

1i. Brown FK and Brown HT

Known as chocolate brown or E155, it is a brown synthetic coal tar
diazo dye of molecular formula: C27H18N4Na2O9S2 used to substitute cocoa or
caramel colourants. Brown FK is used in smoked and cured fish as well as meat
and chips while Brown HT is used in biscuits, cakes, chocolates, milk and
cheeses, yoghurts, jams, fruit products, fish and other products. Unfortunately, it
triggers skin sensitivity and provokes allergic reactions in asthmatics and people
that are sensitive to aspirin. For this reason, it has been banned in Western
Countries and listed for elimination from children diet in most places.

Chocolate Brown HT

Other water soluble synthetic colourants are Green S, Indigotine, Patent Blue V,
Litolurubin BK, Red 2G and Ponso 4R.

2. Oil Soluble Synthetic Colourants

Oil or organic solvents soluble synthetic/artificial colourants are

insoluble in water because unlike water soluble colourants, they do not contain
groups that are capable of forming salts. Many colourants in this group are
toxic, hence, there is stringent legislation against them. For example, the use of
oil-soluble Penso SX as a colourant for butter and margarine was prohibited in
1976. Similarly, Oil Red XO and Yellow AB colourants, both of which impart
an orange peel shade are proscribed because of their toxic properties.

Comparison of Natural and Synthetic Colourants

Natural Colourants Synthetic Colourants

Obtained from natural sources and Obtained through chemical reactions

processed by physical methods

Relatively less stable Stabile to light, O2, pH

Less bright Highly coloured

Not uniform Uniformity of colour

 No health harm Health problems

Good consumer acceptability Consumer acceptability questionable

Expensive A lot cheaper

High microbiological contamination Low microbiological contamination

3. Lake Colourants

Lake Colourants are insoluble precipitates of aluminium hydrate that are

produced in the form of very fine powders. The amount of dye and the particle
size determine the colour tone of the powder. Lake colourants are dispersed in
foods to produce desired shades since they are insoluble in water, oil or any
other solvent. Cakes, biscuit fillings, confectioneries, powder drinks, sweets,
soups and spice mixtures are decorated with lake colourants.

”. Lake colors are synthetic food colorants. They are insoluble in water and they disperse in
oil making them a preferred color for coating candies such as M&Ms.

Lake pigments are organic compounds that have been precipitated with an inert
(nonreactive) binder that is usually colorless, tasteless, odorless and insoluble. Barium or
calcium sulfates and aluminum hydroxide or oxide can serve as neutral binders. The organic
compound determines the wavelength of light absorbed and reflected by the precipitate
Natural Red 4 can be produced by boiling carminic acid (the natural extract is produced by
the female cochineal bug) in a basic sodium carbonate solution containing a small amount of
ethanol and precipitating it with aluminum or calcium cations. The dye is pH sensitive as
seen in the pH and color ranges below:
CARMINE COLOR
Differs with pH of Solution
 orange to red or
pH 3.0
purple
Shade pH 4.0
red or purple
pH 7.0
red or purple
Acceptable pH
3.5 - 9.0
Range
heat excellent

Stability light excellent

acid excellent
Forms powder, liquid
Solubility dispersible in water or oil

(http://www.foodcolor.com/carmine-color)

The carmine precipitate is a "lake" known as Natural red 4. Once dried, the powder
contains approximately 50% carminic acid. It is insoluble in oil but soluble in an alkaline
water solution. The solution is stable above pH 6.

Carmine, also known as Natural red 4 is a precipitated ‘lake’

compound of carminic acid and aluminium that contains approximately 50%
carminic acid when dried. It is insoluble in oil but soluble in an alkaline water
solution. Natural red 4 is an expensive substance hence its use as a colour
additive is uneconomical for the food industry. However, carmine is used to
give pink colour in dragee (tiny confectionery, hard-coated candy and
sweetened pills) coatings and protein foods.

Natural red 4
Comparison between Dyes and Lakes

Food colourants are used either as dyes or pigments (commonly known

as Lakes). Dyes are produced as light powders, granules, liquids or in other
special purpose forms. Dyes are water soluble so they can be used to color
products that contain sufficient water for dissolution such as drinks and baked
goods such as beverages, dry mixes, pastries and confectioneries, dairy
products, pet foods and a variety of other products. To be FD&C certified, a dye
must undergo a rigorous premarket approval by the FDA. The manufacturer
submits a petition with data demonstrating that the dye is safe for human
consumption and appropriate for use as a food dye. Unlike lakes, dyes can
present a side effect such as colouring the stools from a heavy consumer.
Lakes are made by combining dyes with salts to make insoluble compounds.
Lakes tint by dispersions in oil because they are not soluble in oil. Lakes are
more stable than dyes and are ideal for colouring fats and oils containing
products or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve the lake. A lake
pigment is named for its metallic salt binder. For example, Red No. 40 can be
used as the base material to produce Red No. 40 Aluminum Lake. For food use,
a lake must be prepared from an FDA certified food dye. Typical uses include
cake and doughnut mixes, hard candies, chewing gums, pet foods etc.

Colourants used in The Food Industry

The EU approved 43 food colourants and assigned an E number to
each of them. 17 out of these are synthetic while 26 are natural colourants. They
are used in the underlisted food types.

Non Alcoholic Beverages

The non alcoholic beverage industry uses a significant number of food
colourants. Colouring of soft drinks makes them attractive and increases
consumers’ perception of the overall fruit content and quality. All categories of
colourants, including synthetic, nature identical and natural are used to produce
non-alcoholic beverages such as malt drinks, soft drinks, table wines- pure
heaven, eva etc. Quinoline Yellow, Sunset Yellow, Orange Yellow S and
Brilliant Blue FCF are used in many non-alcoholic beverages while Penso 4R,
Brown HT, Brilliant Blue FCF, Green S, Quinoline Wax, Indigo Karmin are
used specifically in soft drinks. While synthetic colourants are used in many
fruit flavoured soft drinks, most cola drinks are coloured with caramel. Sunset
Yellow is used in orange juice, tartrazine in lemon juice, Penso 4R in cherry
juice, Carmoisein and Sunset Yellow in strawberry juice, Carmoisein and Penso
4R in raspberry juice. Allura red and Brillant Black are used in wine production.

Sugar Products
Usually Amaranth, Penso 4R, Allura Red, Sunset Yellow, Tartrazine
and Karmoicine as well as Brown HT, Black PN, Brilliant Blue FCF, Patent
Blue, Erythrocin and Indigo Karmin are added to confectionery products. The
amount added at anytime is determined by the colour tone desired. Addition of
excessive colourant, however, results to a non attractive colour. Lake
Colourants are recommended for use in chewing gums, bonbons and dragées in
order to make the colours to last long in the mouth. In addition, inorganic
natural colourants such as gold, silver, aluminium and iron oxide powders are
used to coat confectionery and chocolate surfaces as well as decorate liquor.

Bakery Products
Colourants are used widely in dough products, biscuits, cake creams and
coatings. Caramel and carbon black are used in combination with synthetic
colourants in this area. Caramel is crucial in the colouring of rye bread while
Allura Red AC, Sunset Yellow FCF, Brown HT, Tartrazine, Penso 4R are the
choicest for baked foods. Tartrizine, Penso 4R, Sunset Yellow FCF are also
used for plain and chocolate cakes, breakfast snacks and wafers.

Canned Foods and Vegetables

Colourants added to canned foods must be resistant to high temperature
sterilization and acid environment conditions. Amaranth, Penso 4R, Allura Red
AC, Sunset Yellow FCF, Red 2G and Indigo Karmin are the most commonly
used synthetic colourants in canned fruits while anthocyanins, β-carotene,
carminic acid and chlorophyll are natural colourants used in canned fruits and
vegetables.

Dairy Products
Ice cream is coloured following pasteurisation using solution dyes.
Almost all synthetic colourants are added to ice cream with Sunset Yellow FCF
and tartrazine colour mixtures being widely used in making ice cream cones. In
addition to β-carotene and anatto used to colour some cheeses and butter, Sunset
Yellow FCF, Penso 4R, Indigo Carmine, Erythrocin, Tartrazine, Amaranth and
Allura Red AC are all used in dairy products. Sunset Yellow FCF and
Carmosine are used especially in the production of yogurt.

Meat and Fish Products

 Water soluble colourants suitable for marinating are essential for curing
or smoking fish and meat products. For this purpose, Brown FK is particularly
useful and in some cases, mixtures of Carmosine, Tartrazine and Sunset Yellow
FCF are used. Carmosine, Erythrocin, Allura Red AC and Red 2G are also
widely used as colourants in meat and fish products.

How Food gets Coloured

A good food colourant dissolves readily when it is added to water
or oil. Just as a solute, such as salt or sugar dissolves and is broken down into
component ions or molecules when it is added to water, a good dye dissolves in
water to produce an even mix. In the same way the relatively weak attractive
forces between individual sugar or salt molecules are overcome as the
molecules (sugar or salt) dissolve to form a solution, individual molecules of a
food colourant (which are usually ionic) associate with the polar (having
partially negative and positive charges) water molecules as they are released
into the water. A second important property of a food colourant is its colour
stability in the water solution. This happens because the molecules of a food
colourant absorbs some wavelengths of light and allows others to pass through
(i.e. transmitting), resulting in the observed colour as shown below.

Blue and Red Dye

A dye appears a particular colour because it absorbs light of a colour that is
complementary to the dye's colour as illustrated here in the case of (a) a blue dye and
(b) a red dye.

Connections of Colourant Additives to Chemistry Concepts

1. Solubility (at the particle level)—

The use of a particular colourant depends on its solubility in the material to be
coloured. For example, the beta-carotene molecule is nonpolar so it is an appropriate
choice for colouring nonpolar margarine or butter. In contrast, the food colouring dyes
that colour the coating of Skittles candy are water soluble. Solubility occurs due to a
competition between three forces (or energies), i.e. the strength of attraction between the
particles of
 the solute
 the solvent
 the solute and the solvent.

If the attraction between particles of the solute and the solvent is strongest, the
attractions between the solute and solvent particles can be broken and solubility will
occur.

2. Solubility of ionic and covalently bonded substances—This presents an opportunity

to reinforce the understanding of the difference between the properties of water-soluble
ionic compounds and water-soluble covalently bonded molecules at the particle level.
The dissolving of a soluble salt in water involves the release of hydrated ions into a
solution. In contrast, dissolving sugar involves the release of hydrated covalently bonded
sugar molecules into the solution.
3. Intermolecular forces—The structural formula of the anthocyanin molecule, Figure 2 of
the Rohrig article, shows exposed hydroxyl groups that can readily hydrogen bond with
water molecules. This provides the opportunity to discuss the water solubility of this
molecule in terms of intermolecular forces, the strength of the hydrogen bonding force
between anthocyanin and water molecules.
4. Molecular structure—The molecular structures of beta-carotene and anthocyanin
provide the basis for understanding how structure determines the physical and chemical
properties of a molecule.
5. Organic structural diagrams—Students may need help interpreting the figures of
organic molecules. Organic chemists have developed a shorthand method to facilitate
the drawing of large molecules while showing bond angles. Carbons are assumed to be
present at each junction of two lines in the drawing and the correct number of hydrogen
atoms required to complete an octet are also assumed. Other atoms and functional
groups are written into the structure.
6. Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory—While discussing acids and bases, the ability of
anthocyanins to reflect light of different colors can provide a connection between
conjugate acid/base theory and the background of students who experienced red
cabbage indicator experiments in elementary school. Students will be surprised to see
yellow colored turmeric turn a bright red in a basic solution.
7. Atomic emission spectra and basic quantum theory—Alternating double and single
bonds decreases the energy required to excite electrons and promote transitions
between the ground state and higher energy levels, thus scattering light in the visible
 spectrum and giving color to our food. This provides a chemical explanation of a real
world phenomena.
Electromagnetic spectrum—Salt and sugar molecules can only absorb and emit light in
the ultraviolet range, wavelengths that our eyes cannot detect, in contrast to the visible
range colors absorbed and transmitted by organic dye molecules

Legal Regulations on Colourants

Regulations regarding food additives and colourants are currently the

focus in every nations. In spite of global co-operation and harmonization
efforts, the regulations vary from country to country. The European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the US are
the most important regulatory bodies authorized to protect and improve human
health as well as ensure the quality and safety of food products. The FDA has
primary legal liability for determining and regulating the safe use of food
additives. Food manufacturers must first obtain approval from FDA to use a
new colourant in food production.
In developed countries, the use of a colourant in the food industry
depends on the outcome of a number of toxicity tests (such as detection of the
acute, subchronic and chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
teratogenicity, reproductive toxicity, accumulation in the body as well as
bioenergy and immune effects). As at today, 16 natural colourants and 9
synthetic others, including lutein (present in egg yolk) are allowed for use in
Europe. Vegetable carbon, aluminium, silver and gold as well as calcium
carbonate are prohibited in the USA. The natural colourants permitted for use
are betaines-: betaines (from sugar beets), quinones-: cochineal, flavonoids-:
anthocyanins, isoprenoids-: carotene, annatto-: (bixin, norbixin), red pepper
extract, lutein, canthaxanthin, porphyrins, chlorophylls and chlorophyllin of
these compounds and copper complexes, caramels and curcumin. Irrespective of
the thousands of different synthetic substances that qualify as food colourants,
only a surprizing 7 are approved for use in foods by the U.S. FDA. These are
tabulated below.
Synthetic food colourings approved by the U.S. FDA. FD&C stands for laws passed by
the U.S. Congress in 1938, called the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.

To distinguish food colourants from other colourants, an FD&C

number is issued by the FDA to the colourants permitted under the Food, Drug
and Cosmetic Act. Similarly, the European Union also assigns the E code
number to approved colourants. For this reason, in some cases there might be 3
different code numbers for the same colourant in the literature. For example, the
CI number, 15985; the FD&C number, Yellow 6 and the E code, E110 are all
used to describe Sunset Yellow.

Health Issues about Food Colourants

Different views emerge when food additives are assessed in terms of

health risks. Most people think that food safety regulations are insufficient for
consumer protection. Some consumers see camouflage as a negative property,
hence, consider natural foods to be safer and even healthier than artificial foods.
Children are known to generally prefer vibrant coloured foods and drinks.
However, synthetic food colourants have long been argued to affect children
negatively, with the effects manifesting as behavioural disorders, hyperactivity
and attention deficits.
In a research study conducted, it was reported that Brilliant Blue,
Tartrazine and FD&C Yellow No 5 cause hyperactivity while 6 of the most
common synthetic food colourants reported to cause attention deficit and
hyperactivity are Tartrazine (E102), Quinolone Yellow (E104), Sunset Yellow
FCF (E110), Carmoisine/Azorubine (E122), Ponceau 4R (E129) and Allura Red
AC (E129). These products are present in confectionaries and beverages. Allura
Red AC, especially is reported to cause cancer, chromosomal aberrations,
developmental anomalies, DNA damage and genotoxicity, hyperactive
behaviour in children, neurotoxicity, psychotoxicity and reproductive toxicity.
The recently observed increase in the incidence of allergies and asthma in
humans has been associated with synthetic food colourants. Allura Red AC has
been reported to increase asthma and urticaria while Tartrazine causes asthma
and migraine.
While reflecting on the negative health effects of synthetic colourants,
there is need to appreciate some of their health benefits. Knowledge of the
positive relationship between health and carotenoids followed the discovery of
β-carotene as an important pigment in skin protection and cell growth.
Lycopene, a natural pigment present in tomatoes is effective in reducing all
types of cancer. The high potency antioxidant, curcumin is recognized to
prevent oxidative damage in cells while demonstrating efficacy in the treatment
of wounds and burns. Curcumin, which functions as an antibacterial and
possesses anti-HIV properties has also been reported to prevent the formation
and growth of cancer cells, increase the activities of digestive enzymes and
promote the detoxification of the liver. The antioxidant activity of colourful
carotenoids, the vitamin A-precursor known to protect against oxidative damage
has been evaluated to positively promote health.

Food Colourants in the Future

It is tempting to think that natural products are healthier than
artificial ones. But that is not always the case. Cochineal extract is not the only
natural dye that poses a health risk. Serious allergic reactions have also been
reported with annatto and saffron (both yellow food colourings derived from
natural products).
So what will the future look like for food colourants? Some advocacy
groups, such as the Centre for Science in the Public Interest, seek to ban all food
colourings because of limited evidence showing that food colourings encourage
children to eat junk food. Others envision a different future. One company has
already manufactured Food Finish, an edible spray paint that can be applied to
any food. It comes in red, blue, gold and silver colours.