Sociology of Management:

Sociology of Organization
Meaning:
Our society is an organizational society. We are born in organizations, educated by
organizations and most of us spend most our lives working for organizations. We spend much of
our leisure time playing and praying in organizations. Thus, organizations are closely related to
human life and we could not remain unassociated from it in our life.
There are various approaches to sociology of organizations. An organization is a social
arrangement which pursues collective goals, controls its own performance, and has a boundary
separating it from its environment. There are a variety of legal types of organizations,
including: corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, international
organizations, armed forces, charities, not-for-profit corporations, partnerships, cooperatives,
and universities. A hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the
private sector, simultaneously fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market
activities. As a result the hybrid organization becomes a mixture of both a part of government
and a private corporation.

What is an organization?
A social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue
collective goals. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships
between the different activities and the members, and subdivides and assigns roles,
responsibilities, and authority to carry out different tasks. Organizations are open systems--they
affect and are affected by their environment. In sociology organization is understood as
planned, coordinated and purposeful action of human beings to construct or compile a common
tangible or intangible product. This action is usually framed by formal membership and
institutional rules. Sociology distinguishes the term organization into planned (formal) and
unplanned (informal) organizations. Sociology analyzes organizations in the first line from
an institutional perspective. In this sense, organization is a permanent arrangement of
elements. These elements and their actions are determined by rules so that a certain task can
be fulfilled through a system of coordinated division of labor.

Use of Sociology in Management:

It is evident that our society is made of social relationships. The term management is associated
with the management of the human resources of the society. Sociology as a holistic, rational and
empirical science studies the human relationship embedded in social institutions, social
organizations and social processes. Sociology provides the information about social realities
or more definitely the pattern of relations to specific group at a particular period of time.
Sociology, by conducting research, finds out the real problems hat organization at a given time is
facing. Thus, sociology as its subject matter is social relationship can provide better insight into
the social problem through the information of causes and course of that problem. Furthermore,
an organization is always influenced by the socio-cultural forces of the environment. Social
forces such as social structure, social institutions and social class has its significant
influence in management operations and decisions. Besides, cultural forces such as religion,
language, values, attitudes and beliefs also affect the organization. Hence, management
activities are greatly guided by these socio-cultural forces of the society. Sociological research
helps in identifying patterns, trends, impact of such socio-cultural forces which assists in better
management decisions.

Networks and Organizations :

Organizations rank among the most important social institutions in modern societies. Therefore,
the study of organizations has long been a topic of central concern to sociological analysis. It
provides fertile ground for the development and testing of sociological theories of social
structure and its consequences. While the roots of organizational studies lie in sociology, the
prevalence and importance of organizations in society make them a central focus of study in the
fields of business and management, education, public policy, political science, and public
health. Hence, skills in organizational analysis can be broadly applied in a variety of settings.

Major Issues on Organizational Networks:

• The effects of social structure on entrepreneurial behavior and outcomes
•The interplay between organizations and labor markets
• The effects of status and vertical differentiation in markets on organizational behavior
• The consequences of organizational structure and design for organizational performance
• The dynamics of change in organizational communities
• The role individual and organizational networks play in structuring information flow
• Structural and environmental constraints on organizational adaptation

Organizational Analysis
Organizational analysis is the process of reviewing the development, work environment,
personnel and operation of a business or another type of association. This review is often
performed in response to crisis, but may also be carried out as part of a demonstration project,
in the process of taking a program to scale, or in the course of regular operations. Conducting a
periodic detailed organizational analysis can be a useful way for management to identify
problems or inefficiencies that have arisen in the organization but have yet to be addressed, and
develop strategies for resolving them. Organizational analysis focuses on the structure and
design of the organization and how the organization's systems, capacity and functionality
influence outputs. Additional internal and external factors are also accounted for in
assessing how to improve efficiency. Undertaking an organizational analysis is helpful in
assessing an organization's current well-being and capacity, and deciding on a course of action
to improve the organization's long-term sustainability. A restructuring of an Organization may
become necessary when either external or internal forces have created a problem or
opportunity for improvement in efficiency and effectiveness.

Organizational Goals and Objectives :

Organizational Goals:
Goals are outcome statements that define what an organization is trying to accomplish,
both programmatically and organizationally. Goals are usually a collection of related programs, a
reflection of major actions of the organization, and provide rallying points for managers. Try to
think of each goal as a large umbrella with several spokes coming out from the center. The
umbrella itself is a goal. Organizational goals should be as per societal expectation.

Organizational Objectives:
objectives are very precise, time-based, measurable actions that support the completion of a
goal. Objectives typically must
(1) be related directly to the goal;
(2) be clear, concise, and understandable;
(3) be stated in terms of results;
(4) begin with an action verb;
(5) specify a date for accomplishment; and
(6) be measurable.

Work and Leisure :

Work:
Work plays a major role in people's lives. When you think of 'work' there are several definitions
depending on your own experiences. Work is socially defined depending on the society in which
you live. In modern, western societies, paid employment is considered to be the most important
type of work. This definition of paid work has marginalized housework as non-work. A
household worker is usually female and is part of the informal economy. It is difficult to estimate
the economic value of household activities such as raising and rearing children, cooking and
cleaning. For the purpose of this paper, work refers to paid employment. In fact, work for many
people is an integral part of their everyday lives and forms an important part of our values
system. Think of the many activities that occur in our daily lives that are in some way related to
work. Work provides us with a major source of self identity and status. People who work hard
are seen as role models who are often emulated. Social status in a post-industrial society is
often determined by occupation.
Functions of Work
• Work fulfills many functions apart from satisfying basic needs and wants associated with living
in a consumer society.
• Work is an integral part of an individual's identity and contributes to social status, social
identity and self esteem.
• Work provides a formalized means to develop social relationships and social contacts outside
the home.
• Work provides the necessary income required to participate in leisure and sporting activities.
• Work also influences where people live and the life styles they follow.

Leisure:
Leisure has been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away
from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores and education. It also excludes time spent on
 necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. From a research perspective, this approach has
the advantages of being quantifiable and comparable over time and place. Leisure as
experience usually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice. It is done for "its
own sake", for the quality of experience and involvement. Other classic definitions include
Thorsten Veblen's (1899) of "nonproductive consumption of time." Different disciplines have
definitions reflecting their common issues: for example, sociology on social forces and
contexts and psychology as mental and emotional states and conditions.

6. Work and Leisure

Work: Work plays a major
role in people's lives. When
you think of 'work' there
are several definitions
depending on your own
experiences. Work is
socially defined depending
on the society in which you
live.
In modern, western
societies, paid employment
is considered to be the
most important type of
work. This
definition of paid work has
marginalized housework as
non-work. A household
worker is usually female
and is part of the informal
economy. It is difficult to
estimate the economic
value of household
activities
such as raising and rearing
children, cooking and
cleaning.
For the purpose of this
paper, work refers to paid
employment. In fact, work
for many people is an
integral
part of their everyday lives
and forms an important
part of our values system.
Think of the many activities
that occur in our daily lives
that are in some way
related to work. Work
provides us with a major
source of
self identity and status.
People who work hard are
seen as role models who
are often emulated. Social
status
in a post-industrial society
is often determined by
occupation.
Functions of Work
• Work fulfills many
functions apart from
satisfying basic needs and
wants associated with living
in
a consumer society.
• Work is an integral part
of an individual's identity
and contributes to social
status, social identity
and self esteem.
• Work provides a
formalized means to
develop social relationships
and social contacts outside
the
home.
• Work provides the
necessary income required
to participate in leisure and
sporting activities.
• Work also influences
where people live and the
life styles they follow.
Leisure: Leisure has been
defined as a quality of
experience or as free time.
Free time is time spent
away
from business, work, job
hunting, domestic chores
and education. It also
excludes time spent on
necessary
activities such as eating
and sleeping. From a
research perspective, this
approach has the
advantages of
being quantifiable and
comparable over time
and place. Leisure as
experience usually
emphasizes
dimensions of perceived
freedom and choice. It is
done for "its own sake", for
the quality of experience
and
involvement. Other classic
definitions include Thorsten
Veblen's (1899) of
"nonproductive
consumption of
time." Different disciplines
have definitions reflecting
their common issues: for
example, sociology on
social forces and contexts
and psychology as mental
and emotional states and
conditions.
Leisure studies and sociology of leisure are the academic disciplines concerned with the study
and analysis of leisure. Recreation differs from leisure in that it is purposeful activity that
includes the experience of leisure in activity contexts. Relationship between Work and Leisure
Research has generally found positive relationships between work and leisure, such that
people choose leisure activities involving the same psychological, social, and behavioral skills as
their work. The present study argues, however, that negative relationships may also occur,
with individuals sometimes compensating for work deficiencies through leisure activities.
Evidence is presented showing that individuals with low occupational status are more likely to
stress the importance of prize winning in leisure than individuals with high status. Since low-
and high-status individuals did not differ in their abilities actually to win prizes, the results
are attributed to the desire of low-status individuals to compensate for lack of occupational
status through leisure achievement.

Group Dynamics and Intergroup Relations

Definition of Group:
Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more people who share a
common meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals.
In other words, a group is a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights
and obligations as members and who share a common identity.

Characteristics of Group:
• Two or more persons
• Formal social structure
• Common goals
• Face-to-face interaction (they will talk with each other)
• Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the other)
• Self-definition as group members
• Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group).

Group dynamics:
 It is a system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group
(intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of
group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behavior, tracking the
spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the
emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. Group dynamics are at the core of
understanding racism, sexism, and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination. These
applications of the field are studied.

Intergroup Relation:
The definition of intergroup is something that deals with two or more collections of
different people. The study of intergroup relations has long been a staple in social science
research and in particular, social psychology. More recent work has tried to determine
when contact between groups is likely to result in positive outcomes. Intergroup relations are
influenced by the social identities and perceptions of groups that individual group members
hold. Furthermore, the quality of intergroup relations influences group members’ group
identities. Thus, there is a circular aspect to group identity processes and the quality of
intergroup relations. One influences and is influenced by the other.

Dynamics of Social Network/Social Capital :

Definition of Social Capital:

Social capital is a form of economic and cultural capital in which social networks are central,
transactions are marked by reciprocity, trust, cooperation, and market agents produce goods
and services not mainly for themselves, but for a common use. “social capital refers to features
of social organization such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and
cooperation for mutual benefit”. - Robert Putnam The term generally refers to: (a) resources,
and the value of these resources, both tangible and intangible, (b) the relationships among
these resources, and (c) the impact that these relationships have on the resources involved in
each relationship, and on larger groups. Social capital has been used to explain improved
performance of diverse groups, the growth of entrepreneurial firms, superior managerial
performance, enhanced supply chain relations, the value derived from strategic alliances, and
the evolution of communities.

Dynamics of Social Capital:

The dynamics or changing aspects of social capital is based on its functions, they are:
• Serves on committee for local organization
• Serves as officer for local organization
• Making Charitable organizations
• Making Civic and social organizations
• Organizes town meetings
• Spends time with friends
• Entertains with family members
• Volunteer services