Lesson 7: Factors that Cause the Changes on the Landscapes

A. Causes of Changes in Landscapes

Landscapes are always in motion due to an interaction of many factors:
natural and human factors.
1. Natural Factors:
Geological Processes. Tectonic Activity such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and slow movement of the tectonic plates uplifting and folding and
fracturing the surface of the Earth resulting in mountains, valleys, and new
landmasses.
Earthquake surface ruptures, fissures, and tectonic uplift/subsidence are as a
result of earthquakes which have a sufficient magnitude that can cause permanent
ground deformation or are close enough to the Earth's surface. These surface
ruptures and fissures are usually restricted to the general area near the intersection
between the causative fault and Earth's surface, while uplift or subsidence can occur
over much broader regions (Styron, 2019).
Erosion and Wind Erosion
Erosion: Wind, water (rivers, rain, oceans), ice (glaciers), and gravity wear
down rocks and soil, transporting material and shaping landscapes over long
periods. Erosion is defined as the set of natural processes that loosen, remove and
transport weathered or unweather solid material such as soil, sediment, mud,
regolith, rock fragments and other particles from the landscape by downhill or
downwind displacement.The mediums needed to for material displacement are wind,
running water, waves, ice (glaciers), underground water, and gravity. Wind erosion is
known as eolian erosion.
Differences in atmospheric pressure will cause the motion of air that can erode
surface material when velocities are high enough to move particles.
Eolian erosion is more evident in dry regions and in areas where there is insufficient
rainfall to support vegetation and root systems.Wind cannot carry as large particles
as flowing water, but easily pick ups dry particles of soil, sand and dust and carries
them away. Wind generally causes erosion by deflation and/or abrasion. Wind
breaks are often planted by farmers to reduce wind erosion. As erosion carries away
weathered solid material, it exposes new, unperturbed rock to erosion.
Weathering: The physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and minerals to smaller
pieces, through mechanical processes like temperature fluctuations, frost wedging,
and chemical ones, such as acid rain.
Biological weathering results from the activities of the flora and fauna. For
example, a rabbit can burrow into a crack in a rock and make it larger and break the
rock asunder or a plant might grow in a crack in a rock and cause the crack to
expand as it grows. You can be weathering! Boots and shoes walking across the
same patch of rock might eventually wear down the rock.
Chemical weathering describes the process of chemicals in rainwater making
changes to the minerals in a rock. Carbon dioxide from the air is dissolved in
rainwater, making it slightly acidic. A reaction can occur when the rainwater comes
into contact with minerals in the rock, causing weathering.
Physical weathering occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as
changes in temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain and
waves. Water can get into cracks in a rock and, if it freezes, the ice will expand and
push the cracks apart. When the ice melts, more water can get into the larger crack;
if it freezes again it expands and can make the crack even bigger.
Climate Change:
Temperature Changes: Rising global temperatures cause glacial melting, sea
level rise, and changes in precipitation, thus greatly affecting coastlines and
terrestrial ecosystems.
U.S. coasts include the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans, the Gulf of
Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. If one considers the coast of the Great Lakes, then
more than 129 million people, almost 40 percent of the nation's total population, live
in coastal counties. Coastal ecosystems support many industries, provide
recreational opportunities, and protect communities from storms. Coasts also are
important to global trade and in providing job opportunities. Many communities are
taking measures to safeguard coasts from the impact of climate change. Some are
elevating buildings or erecting barriers to protect the public, businesses, and
property against the devastating impact of flooding and storm surges. Others restore
coastal habitats and use nature-based features to build coastal resilience. Many
coastal cities and counties are focusing on land use planning to encourage smart
growth and reduce the impacts of climate change.
Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency and intensity of events like
hurricanes, droughts, and floods can cause rapid and severe landscape alterations
such as coastal erosion, soil erosion, and desertification.
2. Human Factors
Agriculture
Soil is the earth's fragile skin, anchoring all life on Earth. It comprises a myriad
species that create a dynamic and complex ecosystem and is amongst the most
precious resources to humans. Increased demand for agriculture commodities
generates incentives to convert forests and grasslands to farm fields and pastures.
The shift from natural vegetation to agriculture often cannot retain the soil and many
of these crops, including coffee, cotton, palm oil, soybean and wheat, can actually
enhance soil erosion over and above the soil's ability to sustain itself. Half of the
world's topsoil has been lost in the last 150 years. Besides erosion, other aspects of
agriculture impact soil quality. Compaction, soil structure degradation, nutrient
degradation, and salinity of the soil are included among these impacts. Such is very
real and in some cases, serious problems.
Effects of soil erosion transcend mere loss of fertile lands. It has caused enhanced
levels of pollution and sedimentation in streams and rivers, thereby causing
obstructions of waterways and declines of species in fish and others. This usually
ends in flood water if the holding or retention is inefficient. Also degraded lands
usually carry less capacity holding water thereby worsening the conditions of flood.
Sustainable agriculture can then lessen the effects by preventing erosion, soil
degradation through erosion as well as prevention of lands desertification.
Deforestation, clearing forests for farmland leads to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity,
and changes in local climate.
Overgrazing
Overgrazing. Overstocked herding will degrade soil, reduce plant cover, and cause
desertification. Grazing is the beautiful cows in good grass in north-western Europe
or New Zealand-livestock in harmony with nature. Livestock in fact can improve soil,
increase vegetation cover and both plant and animal biodiversity. As this chapter
describes these effects for widely different conditions of widely differing
environments for livestock in Kenya, in the western United States and Guinea. It is
thus capable of improving plant species composition through removing biomass that
otherwise might fuel bush fires, controlling shrub growth, and dispersing seeds
through their hoofs and manure. Moreover, trampling can stimulate grass tillering,
improve seed germination, and break up hard soil crusts.
However, many people associate grazing animals with overgrazing, soil degradation
and deforestation. To them livestock keeping in arid regions of the tropics provokes
images of clouds of dust, bleached cow skeletons and an advancing desert. The two
most quoted sources are the Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (Oldeman et
al., 1991), which estimates that 680 million hectares of rangeland have become
degraded since 1945, and Dregne et al., (1991) who argue that 73 percent of the
world's 4.5 billion hectares of rangeland is moderately or severely degraded. In
humid areas, livestock are associated with ranch encroachment and deforestation of
tropical rainforests and competition with wildlife.
Prolonged heavy grazing undoubtedly contributes to the disappearance of palatable
species and the subsequent dominance by other, less palatable, herbaceous plants
or bushes. Such loss of plant and, in consequence, animal biodiversity can require a
long regenerative cycle (30 years in savannas, 100 years in rainforests). Excessive
livestock grazing also causes soil compaction and erosion, decreased soil fertility
and water infiltration, and a loss in organic matter content and water storage
capacity. On the other hand, total absence of grazing also reduces biodiversity
because a thick canopy of shrubs and trees develops which intercepts light and
moisture and results in overprotected plant communities which are susceptible to
natural disasters.
Intensive farming
Farmers apply nutrients on their fields in the form of chemical fertilizers and
animal manure, which provide crops with the nitrogen and phosphorus necessary to
grow and produce the food we eat. However, when nitrogen and phosphorus are not
fully utilized by the growing plants, they can be lost from the farm fields and
negatively impact air and downstream water quality.

This excess nitrogen and phosphorus can be washed from farm fields and into
waterways during rain events and when snow melts, and can also leach through the
soil and into groundwater over time. High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus can
cause eutrophication of water bodies. Eutrophication can lead to hypoxia (“dead
zones”), causing fish kills and a decrease in aquatic life. Excess nutrients can cause
harmful algal blooms (HABs) in freshwater systems, which not only disrupt wildlife
but can also produce toxins harmful to humans.
Crop sprayer applying fertilizer to field
Applying fertilizers in the proper amount, at the right time of year and with the right
method can significantly reduce how much fertilizer reaches water bodies.
Fertilized soils, as well as livestock operations, are also vulnerable to nutrient losses
to the air. Nitrogen can be lost from farm fields in the form of gaseous, nitrogen-
based compounds, like ammonia and nitrogen oxides. Ammonia can be harmful to
aquatic life if large amounts are deposited from the atmosphere to surface waters.
Nitrous oxide is a potent greenhouse gas.
Urbanization
Construction. Urban sprawl consumes vast areas of land, fragmenting habitats and
altering natural drainage patterns.
Infrastructure Development. Roads, dams, and other infrastructure projects can
disrupt natural ecosystems and alter river courses. Any infrastructure that changes
or diverts significant natural flows of water can have large-scale impacts, potentially
destroying wetlands, drying river basins, and leaving communities vulnerable to
flooding or drought. Add the effects of climate change such as shifting precipitation
patterns and increasing the intensity and frequency of extremes like droughts and
floods, and these impacts are even more damaging.
A bad dam can increase water pollution, reduce or block sediment flow, and
jeopardize animal and plant life both inside and outside the river. For aquatic animals
that migrate, like salmon and river dolphins, the wrong dam can hinder their
movement and limit their ability to feed and reproduce, worsening the impacts of
increasing temperatures and changing flows due to climate change. Only one-third of
the world’s largest rivers remain free-flowing; any infrastructure project that would
potentially obstruct these rivers requires careful consideration.
Pollution. Urban areas generate significant amounts of air, water, and soil pollution,
impacting the surrounding environment. Runoff from urban and suburban areas is a
major origin of nonpoint source pollution. Much of the urban environment is paved
with asphalt or concrete, or covered with buildings. These surfaces are usually
impervious, meaning that water runs off of them without being absorbed into the soil.
These hard, impervious surfaces make it easier for stormwater to pick up, absorb,
and carry pollutants.

Other environments in urban and suburban areas also add to nonpoint source
pollution. At construction sites, soil that has been disturbed or piled up without being
contained can easily erode. Discarded construction materials (plastics, wood, oils,
trash) can also be carried away from these sites by runoff waters.
Industrialization
Mining industries cause deforestation, erosion of soil, and polluting water sources
with heavy metals and other contaminants.
Of the 1.4 million hectares of mining-related tree cover loss from 2001 to 2020,
450,000 hectares were in tropical primary rainforests, 150,000 hectares were in
protected areas, and 260,000 hectares were in Indigenous Peoples’ and local
community lands. Mining-related loss in tropical primary rainforests is especially
concerning because these are some of the most carbon-rich and biodiverse areas of
the world. They also help regulate local and regional climate effects like rainfall and
temperatures.
Moreover, these figures are likely conservative. They do not account for indirect tree
cover loss caused by mining activities, such as building access roads for heavy
machinery, storage facilities and other infrastructure. Evidence also shows that
mining sites often expand, leading to in-migration and the establishment of nearby
settlements that further degrade forests through agriculture and logging.
Two types of mining are common in forested areas:
1. Large-scale mining is a regulated, landscape-transforming, industrial-scale
extraction. It can include mountaintop removal for coal or the opening of large pits for
metals such as copper or lithium. This type of mining is common in the United States
and Australia.
2. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is a largely informal sector that, despite
its name, can lead to widespread superficial landscape impacts that are oftentimes
more difficult to monitor relative to large-scale mining. ASM is sometimes illegal,
when done without the appropriate land rights and mining licenses and permits.
Informal and illegal mining is rife in the Amazon, Ghana and Myanmar for materials
like gold and rare earth elements. While this type of mining can have negative
impacts for both nature and human health, it can also provide economic support for
Indigenous Peoples and local communities. A few grams of gold, for example, can
amount to a month’s or year’s minimum wage in some rural communities in exporting
countries.
The industrial wastes when released into the environment create pollution in
air, water, and soil, disrupting ecosystem and human health. Hazardous waste, by
definition, has the potential to negatively affect human health and the environment,
which is why it is so strictly regulated. Hazardous wastes are either specifically listed
as hazardous by EPA or a state, or exhibit one or more of the following
characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. Generation and
management of hazardous wastes can contaminate land, air, and water and
negatively affect human health and environmental conditions.
Municipal solid waste landfills are the third-largest source of human-related
methane emissions in the U.S., accounting for 15.5 percent of these emissions in
2021. Methane is one of several non-CO2 gases that contribute to global climate
change. Methane gas is released as wastes decompose, and emissions are a
function of the total amount and makeup of the wastes as well as management
facility location, design, and practices. EPA is interested because gas emissions can
be affected by recycling and changing product use. For example, increased recycling
of municipal solid waste reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills while also
conserving natural resources (e.g., timber, water, and minerals) and preventing
pollution by reducing the need to collect new raw materials.
Road networks fragment habitats and may lead to soil erosion and pollution.If
changing land uses reduce the total area of a habitat, then the species that need
those habitats are put under more pressure.
For example, the total area of Lowland raised bog in Scotland declined by
44% between 1947 and 1988 – that is, an average annual loss of 2.5km2 of raised
bog habitat each year. Plants and animals dependent on this habitat have had to
cope with a smaller total area of habitat each year.
Greater fragmentation increases the distance between habitat patches,
making it harder for individuals to move from one patch to another. Potential
movement routes can also be fragmented – e.g. by a road that cuts through a strip of
woodland. This leaves the remaining population in each habitat patch very isolated,
which also leads to inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. Populations thus
become more vulnerable and can be more easily lost if a catastrophic event arises.
Fragmentation also prevents individuals of the same species migrating from other
patches to replace the lost population.
2. ContemporaryInternational Affairs
Contemporary international affairs significantly influence landscape change through
various mechanisms:
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation:
International Agreements: Global agreements like the Paris Agreement are aimed at
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to the impacts of climate change.
Such efforts can drive landscape-level changes through initiatives such as:
Afforestation and Reforestation
Planting trees to absorb carbon dioxide and restore degraded ecosystems.
Just like humans, trees breathe. But, while humans inhale oxygen and exhale carbon
dioxide, trees do the opposite: their leaves pull in carbon dioxide, water, and energy
from the sun to turn into sugars that feed the tree. This process, known as
photosynthesis, emits oxygen. So, through photosynthesis, trees remove climate-
warming carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help us mitigate the effects of
climate change.

In one year, a mature tree can absorb a half a Metric ton of carbon dioxide
equivalent. Altogether, forests in the U.S. offset about 16 percent—or three decades
worth—of greenhouse gas emissions emitted from cars, trucks, power plants, and
other sources in country. In fact, forest ecosystems are the largest land-based
carbon sink on Earth.
Carbon dioxide absorbs and radiates heat. Though an essential component of our
atmosphere, humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere by 47 percent since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. As a
result, our average annual global temperature has risen by 2 degrees, which has, in
turn, driven temperature extremes, decreased snow and sea ice cover, intensifying
natural disasters, and changing habitat ranges for plants and animals.
The security of forests as carbon sink is waning as beetle kill, drought, wildfires,
human development, climate change, and other disturbances impact the health and
expanse of forested landscapes. For instance, as wildfires burn more intensely and
across more acres, the chance that the landscape regrows as a grassland instead of
a forest may increase. Since grasslands sequester less carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, our reliable carbon sink that is forests will shrink.
Coastal Protection Measures such as seawalls, mangrove restoration, which will be
implemented to save the coastal areas from sea-level rise and storm surges.
Sustainable Land Use Practices: Promoting sustainable agriculture, forestry, and
land management practices that reduce adverse impacts on the environment.
The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It
was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in
Paris, France, on 12 December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November 2016.Its
overarching goal is to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature
increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.”
However, in recent years, world leaders have stressed the need to limit global
warming to 1.5°C by the end of this century. That’s because the UN’s
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that crossing the 1.5°C
threshold risks unleashing far more severe climate change impacts, including more
frequent and severe droughts, heatwaves and rainfall.
The Paris Agreement works on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate
action -- or, ratcheting up -- carried out by countries. Since 2020, countries have
been submitting their national climate action plans, known as nationally determined
contributions (NDCs). Each successive NDC is meant to reflect an increasingly
higher degree of ambition compared to the previous version. In their NDCs, countries
communicate actions they will take to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in
order to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement. Countries also communicate in their
NDCs actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the impacts of climate
change.
Global Trade and Resource Extraction

Increased Demand
Growing global demand for resources such as timber, minerals, and agricultural
products fuels deforestation, mining, and other activities that radically alter
landscapes.
International Trade Agreements
Such agreements may influence the environmental impacts of resource extraction
and trade through setting standards for environmental protection and promoting
sustainable practices.
Geopolitical Conflicts
Environmental Destruction
Wars and conflicts usually lead to the destruction of the environment,
including deforestation, pollution, and the displacement of populations. These effects
may take a long time to change the landscape.
One of the casualties of war that is often overlooked is the environment.
During armed conflicts, the environment is habitually destroyed. Armed conflict
creates extreme amounts of pollution, which impacts the environment and especially
harms both biodiversity & geodiversity in a given region (Lawrence et al., 2015). For
example, deforestation and other forms of environmental destruction often increase
during times of armed conflict because resource extraction is one of the main ways
conflicts are financed. The problem of deforestation is also fueled by the need for
firewood, which is an essential resource (Vince, 2022). Like deforestation,
explosions and “scorched earth” policies also destroy soil, making it impossible to
use for agriculture; additionally, both of these things can lead to air pollution as well,
which has transnational impacts on the environment. When this destruction is
significant enough to impact large swaths of agricultural land, it leads to food
insecurity. Since most armed conflicts happen in areas where tensions are already
high, food insecurity is often a pre-existing issue in these areas, and the destruction
of farmland through pollution, explosions, burning, and other destructive actions
increases tensions and food insecurity, as well as draining other material resources.
International Cooperation on Environmental Protection
Treaties and conventions to deal with the issues of global environmental
challenges, such as biodiversity conservation and pollution control, and to promote
sustainable land management practices.
Conclusion:
 Landscape change is one of the major drivers of environmental change.
These changes hold significant implications that relate to climate variability and
change, biodiversity, natural resources, and ecosystem services. This landscape
change phenomenon is complicated due to a set of reasons triggered by natural
forces and human ones. Contemporary international affairs are of significant
influence in creating such changes and their pace as well as direction in which
landscape evolvement occurs. Addressing the challenges of landscape change
requires a multi-faceted approach that will integrate international cooperation,
sustainable development practices, and a deeper understanding of the
interconnectedness between human activities and the environment.
References:
Styron, R., 2019. Coseismic uplift and subsidence: An underappreciated seismic threat.
Global Earthquake Model Foundation (GEM) Hazard Blog. Accessed 24 November 2019.
USGS, 2003. The Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline survives the quake – A triumph of science and
engineering. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed 12 April 2020.
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/geological-processes/weathering/
#:~:text=Physical%20weathering%20occurs%20when%20physical,effects%20of%20wind
%2C%20rain%20and
https://www.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-change-impacts-coasts
https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation
https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/sources-and-solutions-agriculture
https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/when-infrastructure-goes-wrong-for-nature-and-
people#:~:text=Any%20infrastructure%20that%20changes%20or,destroying%20wetlands
%2C%20drying%20river%20basins
https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/a-breath-of-fresh-air-how-trees-help-mitigate-climate-
change#:~:text=So%2C%20through%20photosynthesis%2C%20trees%20remove,the
%20effects%20of%20climate%20change.

Lesson 8 Ways of Preserving Endangered Natural Landscapes and

Places
1. Various Natural Landscapes and Places around the World
Our planet is a tapestry of diverse and breathtaking landscapes, each with unique
features and ecological importance.
Here are a few of the most famous examples:
Tropical rainforests are unique in the high levels of biodiversity they exhibit. Around
40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. Rainforests are
home to half of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all
flowering plants can be found in rainforests. A single hectare of rainforest may
contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500
species of higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the
Earth" and the "world's largest pharmacy", because over one quarter of natural
medicines have been discovered within them. It is likely that there may be many
millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in
tropical rainforests. Even though tropical rainforests cover less than 6 percent of the
earth’s surface, scientist estimates that at least half of all animal species in the world
live there. Tropical rainforests have existed on Earth for hundreds of millions of
years. The division left tropical rainforests located in five major regions of the world:
tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and New Guinea, with smaller
outliers in Australia.
Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to
large-scale fragmentation due to human activity. Habitat fragmentation caused by
geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past,
and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human
driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of the major causes of species
extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavylogging and agricultural
clearance throughout the 20th century, and the area covered by rainforests around
the world is rapidly shrinking.
The world's rainforests are currently disappearing at a rate of 6000 acres every hour
(this is about 4000 football fields per hour).When these forests are cut down, the
plants and animals that live in the forests are destroyed, and some species are at
risk of being made extinct. Further, as the large-scale harvesting of lumber from the
rain forests continues, the balance of the earth's eco-system is disrupted. We need
the rain forests to produce oxygen and clean the atmosphere to help us breathe. We
also know that the earth's climate can be affected, as well as the water cycle.
Rainforests also provide us with many valuable medicinal plants, and may be a
source of a cure from some deadly diseases.
Forests can be managed effectively without endangering rare species of plants and
animals and without risking global environmental damage. Companies that harvest
timber should not be allowed to "clear cut" large areas of forest and should be
required to plant new trees after they cut old trees down. Governments should create
large parks and reserves where hunting and logging are not allowed. As a world
community, we must be careful not to destroy the resources that people will need in
the future.
Most of the products that we use in our country come from rainforests, such as
rubber, coffee and rain forest lumber. Rainforests are cut down to harvest the timber
and also to make room for farms to grow coffee and spices. Each of us needs to be
thoughtful about the way we consume these products, and support companies and
programs that make a commitment to safe environmental practices. Recycle and re-
use whenever possible, and help keep the earth green and healthy.
Animals of the various tropical rainforests around the world evolved thousands of
miles from one another, and are therefore different from continent to continent and
even from forest to forest. However, because all rainforest habitats are similar in
many ways, many of the species in them are also similar to species from far away.
For instance, all rainforests boast breathtaking numbers of bird species, and the bird
species of the most tropical rainforests include parrots.
Flying over the heart of the Amazon is like flying over an ocean of green: an expanse
of trees broken only by rivers. Even more amazing than their size is the role the
Amazon and other rainforests around the world play in our everyday lives. While
rainforests may seem like a distant concern, these ecosystems are critically
important for our well-being.
Rainforests are often called the lungs of the planet for their role in absorbing carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and producing oxygen, upon which all animals depend
for survival. Rainforests also stabilize climate, house incredible amounts of plants
and wildlife, and produce nourishing rainfall all around the planet.
Temperate deciduous forests are most notable because they go through four
seasons: Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Leaves change color (or senesce) in
autumn, fall off in the winter, and grow back in the spring; this adaptation allows
plants to survive cold winters.
Temperate deciduous forests are located in the mid-latitude areas which means that
they are found between the polar regions and the tropics. The deciduous forest
regions are exposed to warm and cold air masses, which cause this area to have
four seasons. The temperature varies widely from season to season with cold
winters and hot, wet summers. The average yearly temperature is about 10°C. The
areas in which deciduous forests are located get about 750 to 1,500 mm of
precipitation spread fairly evenly throughout the year.
During the fall, trees change color and then lose their leaves. This is in preparation
for the winter season. Because it gets so cold, the trees have adapted to the winter
by going into a period of dormancy or sleep. They also have thick bark to protect
them from the cold weather. Trees flower and grow during the spring and summer
growing season.
Grasslands
Savannas
Tropical grasslands with sparse trees, mainly found in Africa and South America.
Climate is the most important factor in creating a savanna. Savannas are always
found in warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is from about 50.8 to 127 cm
(20-50 inches) per year. It is crucial that the rainfall is concentrated in six or eight
months of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur. If the
rain were well distributed throughout the year, many such areas would become
tropical forest. Savannas which result from climatic conditions are called climatic
savannas. Savannas that are caused by soil conditions and that are not entirely
maintained by fire are called edaphic savannas. These can occur on hills or ridges
where the soil is shallow, or in valleys where clay soils become waterlogged in wet
weather. A third type of savanna, known as derived savanna, is the result of people
clearing forest land for cultivation. Farmers fell a tract of forest, burn the dead trees,
and plant crops in the ashes for as long as the soil remains fertile. Then, the field is
abandoned and, although forest trees may recolonize, grass takes over on the bare
ground (succession), becoming luxuriant enough to burn within a year or so. In
Africa, a heavy concentration of elephants in protected parkland have created a
savanna by eating leaves and twigs and breaking off the branches, smashing the
trunks and stripping the bark of trees. Elephants can convert a dense woodland into
an open grassland in a short period of time. Annual fires then maintain the area as a
savanna.

Steppes
Locate and describe the temperate grasslands and their forages. The main
temperate grasslands are the steppe in Eurasia, the prairies of North America, the
downs of Australia and New Zealand and the pampa of Argentina. Temperate
grasslands produce plants with long, extensive roots that dig deep into the mollisol
(soft, nutrient-rich) soil. This type of massive root structure creates a dense net that
develops a sod layer anchoring plants to the soil, which reduces erosion, retains
water, and was once used to make homes because of its density. As the roots
decay, a dark brown soil (sometimes called chernozem or "black soil") forms which is
very fertile. Temperate grasslands with fewer trees, found in Eurasia and North
America.
Many different types of animals and insects thrive on the forage in temperate
grasslands. Aphids, grubs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars each enjoy different parts
of the local vegetation. Rabbits, hares, prairie dogs, and countless smaller rodents:
gerbils, hamsters, mice, squirrels, chinchillas and rat kangaroos forage on the
various grasslands. Australian kangaroos, South American guanacos, North
American bison and antelope all forage, but are also hunted by predators such as
wolves. Birds are consumers of seeds and grasses and also predators to other
foragers. The animals and fowl of the prairies have a palette of ways to survive the
cold winters including burrows, hibernation, winter coats and migration.
Pampas: Grasslands of South America. The Campos, grassland with few trees or
shrubs except near streams, lies between 24°S and 35°S; it includes parts of Brazil,
Paraguay and Argentina, and all of Uruguay. Grassland -based livestock production
is very important, based on the natural grassland that covers most of the area. Stock
rearing is on large, delimited holdings and is commercial. Production is based on
spring -summer growing grassland, with little use of sown pastures. Beef cattle
predominate; sheep are mainly for wool, but some lamb is produced. Limited winter
production and poor herbage quality are major limiting factors in livestock production.
Soil phosphorus is generally low and this deficiency affects stock. Campos pastures
are highly responsive to fertilizers, which can modify the specific composition of
natural grassland; application of phosphate increases legume cover and the
phosphorus content of forage. Fattening off grass can take up to four years;
intensive fattening of younger stock uses some sown pasture. Sheep may be grazed
with breeding herds of cattle.
Deserts
Hot deserts have an extreme climate and challenging environment. There is very
little biodiversity in hot deserts because of the harsh climate. Few species are
specialised enough to survive there. Plants and animals which do survive there have
adapted to difficult conditions.The biotic or living components and the abiotic or non-
living components of the hot desert rely on one another - a change in one will lead to
a change in the other.

Mountains
The youngest and highest mountain range on the planet, the Himalayas have always
been a fascinating and awe inspiring region, both for the locals and for the explorers
and hiking aficionados of all around the world.
The name Himalayas, in the Sanskrit language, and means "Abode of snow".
Nowhere else on the planet - outside of the poles - is there as much snow and ice as
on the high and steep mountains of this vast region, whose total area equals that of
Western Europe. More than 15 000 glaciers cover vast swathes of land, and provide
water to several billion people in the southern and eastern parts of the Asian
continent.
While one generally tends to assimilate the Himalayas with high, snow-capped
mountains, this region actually offers an incredible variety of landscapes and
ecosystems, from the low subtropical canyons with rainforest like vegetation to
gigantic coniferous forests to wide alpine meadows.
The fauna that thrives in this vast and diverse region is as amazing as its high peaks:
snow leopard, musk deer, Asian elephants, pandas, as well as more than 500
species of birds. The forest types range from broadleaf, evergreen forests to more
isolated mountain pines, hemlock or spruce, and the flora offers an equal diversity,
with thousands of plants and flowers, growing thanks to the generous rains of the
monsoon or struggling on more rugged, high mountain terrain.
The Andes Mountains are a vast and beautiful mountain range that runs along the
entire western coast of South America. The range stretches over 4,000 miles, from
Colombia in the north, through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, and
ending at Tierra del Fuego, the southernmost tip of the continent.
The Andes Mountains are not only one of the longest mountain ranges in the world
but also the highest range outside of the Himalayas, making them an important
natural landmark and a wonderful source of biodiversity for the region. The Andes
are home to a diverse range of flora and fauna. The mountain range has a unique
ecosystem due to its altitude, which ranges from sea level to over 6,900 meters.
They are a source of freshwater for millions of people in South America. The Andes
mountain range is home to several major rivers, including the Amazon, which is the
world’s largest river by volume.
The Andes are also vulnerable to climate change. This is causing glaciers to melt at
an alarming rate. This could have serious implications for the region’s water supply
and ecosystem. The Andes are responsible for creating the “El Niño” weather
pattern. This causes abnormal warming in the Pacific Ocean and can lead to
extreme weather conditions, including floods and droughts.
The Rocky Mountain region is one of the most topographically distinct and
impressive parts of North America. The Rocky Mountains rise abruptly above the
bordering regions, particularly on the east and northeast where they are flanked by
plains, less so on the west and southwest where they are bounded by high plateaus.

Coastal and Marine Resources

Fishes and other organisms shelter, find food, reproduce, and rear their young in the
many nooks and crannies formed by corals. The Northwest Hawaiian Island coral
reefs, which are part of the Papahānaumokuākea National Marine Monument,
provide an example of the diversity of life associated with shallow-water reef
ecosystems. This area supports more than 7,000 species of fishes, invertebrates,
plants, sea turtles, birds, and marine mammals. Deep water reefs or mounds are
less well known, but also support a wide array of sea life in a comparatively barren
world.
With coastal challenges created by growing populations, burgeoning development,
and climate change, risks to people and property from flooding and storm surge are
on the rise. Mangroves provide valuable flood protection and risk reduction benefits
to these coastal areas, and yet are a threatened species. Coastal ecosystems, such
as reefs and mangroves, are crucial in reducing the damages caused by floods to
both people and property by acting as natural barriers to waves and storm surges.
This is particularly important across the Caribbean and Florida, where the risk of
storms has increased substantially over the past 30 years, accompanied by
significant habitat loss. Therefore, the protection provided by mangroves is an
essential component of coastal resilience, with their conservation and restoration
necessary to safeguard both coastal communities and the natural environment.
Freshwater Ecosystems and Resources
Sustainable Fisheries
Rivers are home to abundant fish and wildlife, including:
1. Freshwater fish like bass, perch, bluegill, and catfish
2. Migratory fish such as alewife, salmon, trout, and striped bass
3. Invertebrates that provide food for fish
4. Protected, endangered, and threatened species
Dams, culverts, and other barriers block migratory fish from returning to their historic
spawning grounds. When fish can’t reach their habitat, they can’t reproduce and
maintain or grow their populations. Dams also alter the amount of water and
sediment traveling downstream, changing living conditions above and below the
dam.
Human activities can degrade or destroy important river and floodplain habitat. For
example:

● Hard shorelines increase water velocity, hastening erosion and negatively

affecting fish populations.
● Digging channels or straightening rivers destroys nearby floodplains and
wetlands, and can lead to flooding.
● Riverside development can reduce shade, which can lead to warmer waters
that threaten many species. Paved surfaces also increase polluted runoff from
roadways, parking lots, and roofs.
● Overused rivers can run dry long before they reach the sea, destroying
important habitat.
Outdated farming methods can cause fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides to
contaminate rivers and streams. Excess nutrients and toxic chemicals can then
concentrate in waterways, causing algal blooms and “dead zones” where underwater
life is unable to survive.

Preservation of Endangered Landscapes and Landforms

Many of these incomparable landscapes are under a dire threat from human
actions through the processes of deforestation, pollution, climate change, and
urbanization. Immediate measures are a prerequisite for their long-term
sustainability. The major preservation tactics involved are:
Protected Regions
National Parks and Reserves: These are government-declared lands where natural
resources remain well-protected and anthropogenic activities are limited.
Wildlife Sanctuaries: Regions allocated especially for the protection of wild animals.
Marine Protected Areas: Parts of the sea where human interventions are either
limited or controlled in order to protect marine diversity.
The Philippines has always been considered one of the mega diverse country
in the world. With ecosystems that boast of one of the highest levels of diversity and
endemicity of life forms and some of the most unique habitats in the world-home to
some of the planet’s critically endangered species of wildlife. With the country’s
habitats and ecosystems, which play a major role in maintaining ecological balance
in constant threat from illegal resource use and development activities increasing the
pressure on already declining resources, the country has become one of the
“Biodiversity hotspots” in the world.
 In order to address these threats to biodiversity, the Philippine Government in
cooperation and consultation with local and foreign conservation partners, embarked
on a mission to establish a system of protected areas in the country. Assessments,
researches and studies were conducted to determine and prioritize the conservation
of the last remaining Philippine species, habitats and ecosystems.
Legal Basis of Protected Areas in the Philippines
Two landmark laws were enacted for the establishment and management of
protected areas: Republic Act No 7586 or the National Integrated Protected Areas
System Act of 1992 and Republic Act No 11038 or the Expanded National
Integrated Protected Areas System (E-NIPAS) Act of 2018.
NIPAS and E-NIPAS define protected areas as “portions of land and water set
aside by reason of their unique physical and biological significance, managed to
enhance biological diversity and protected against destructive human exploitation”.

With the passage of the NIPAS Act of 1992, priority conservation areas were
identified through innovative approaches and the legislation provided the framework
for a decentralized, community-based reserve management strategies.
Wildlife Sanctuary – comprises an area which assures the natural conditions
necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic
communities or physical features of the environment where these may require
specific human manipulation for the perpetuation.
Encouraging Land Use Conservation
Sustainable Agriculture: Reduce harmful impact on the environment by practices like
organic farming, crop rotation, and decreased use of pesticides.
Sustainable Forestry: Produce timber from the forests with a balance on its
ecological values. Sustainable forestry means managing forests in a way that will
keep forests healthy and usable for local communities and society as a whole for
generations to come. People use the forest for harvesting timber, collecting berries,
honey, and herbs, studying wildlife, connecting with nature for spirituality, recreation,
and more –making the sustainable management of forests and their resources
essential.
Ecotourism: Promote tourism with a reduced adverse effect on the environment, but
the economic benefits flow directly to local communities.
Combat Climate Change
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit the effects of climate change on
ecosystems. Implementation of adaptation measures that will allow ecosystems to
adapt to the impact of climate change, such as assisted migration of species.
Climate change mitigation involves actions to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas
emissions from human activities.
Mitigation efforts include transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing
energy efficiency, adopting regenerative agricultural practices and protecting and
restoring forests and critical ecosystems.
Effective mitigation requires a whole-of-society approach and structural
transformations to reduce emissions and limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-
industrial levels.
International cooperation, for example through the Paris Agreement, is crucial in
guiding and achieving global and national mitigation goals.
Mitigation efforts face challenges such as the world's deep-rooted dependency on
fossil fuels, the increased demand for new mineral resources and the difficulties in
revamping our food systems.
These challenges also offer opportunities to improve resilience and contribute to
sustainable development.

Community Engagement
Engagement of local communities in conservation
Promotion of environmental education and awareness programmes.
Support for traditional ecological knowledge and sustainable livelihoods.

International Cooperation
Establishment of international agreements to protect biodiversity and endangered
ecosystems.
Sharing knowledge and resources between countries to mitigate global
environmental issues.
As the most overarching international policy context, the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development is devoted to protecting, among other things, natural
resources and biodiversity, on land and below water. Sustainable Development Goal
(SDG) 14 sets out the aim to “Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
marine resources for sustainable development”. SDG 15 asserts the intention to
“protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and
halt biodiversity loss”. Going beyond the scope of SDGs 14 and 15, biodiversity and
functional ecosystems provide the essential resources and ecosystem services that
directly support a range of societal sectors and economic activities. Biodiversity is
thus immediately relevant to the achievement of SDG 1 on ending poverty, SDG 3
on health, and SDG 8 on decent work and economic growth, and will have significant
implications for achieving zero hunger (SDG 2) and the tackling of inequalities (SDG
10).
As one of the key agreements adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, the
Convention on Biological Diversity represents a formal commitment by the vast
majority of the world’s governments to maintain the planet’s ecological
underpinnings. The Convention established three main goals: the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources.
The WHO Global Strategy on Health, Environment and Climate Change was
adopted in 2019 to scale up action on environmental health determinants, aiming at
the prevention of environmental health risks by accounting for health in all policies
and improving disease prevention and health promotion. In this context, the global
strategy calls for the adoption of more cross-sectoral solutions, such as protection of
biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the linked surveillance of pathogens in
wildlife and human beings, in order to lower risk and increase preparedness for
health threats resulting from human influence on natural ecosystems.

References
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/biome/biotemperate.php#:~:text=Other,Spring
%2C%20Summer%2C%20and%20Fall.
https://www.nps.gov/teachers/classrooms/wildlife-of-the-tropical-
rainforests.htm#:~:text=Tropical%20rainforests%20are%20unique%20in,are
%20indigenous%20to%20the%20rainforests
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/
grasslands.php#:~:text=Savanna,grassland%20with%20scattered%20individual
%20trees.
https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/instructormaterials/
availabletopics/grasslands/temperate#:~:text=The%20main%20temperate
%20grasslands%20are,and%20the%20pampa%20of%20Argentina.
https://undiscoveredmountains.com/himalayas#:~:text=The%20youngest%20and
%20highest%20mountain,the%20locals%20and%20for%20the
https://amigosinternational.org/la_carta/facts-about-the-andes-mountains/
#:~:text=Learn%20more%20about%20the%20Andes,kilometers%20from
%20Colombia%20to%20Chile.
https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/florida/stories-
in-florida/why-mangroves-important/#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20the%20protection
%20provided%20by,and%20restoration%20necessary%20to%20safeguard
https://bmb.gov.ph/protected-area-development-and-management/philippine-
protected-areas/
https://climatepromise.undp.org/news-and-stories/what-climate-change-mitigation-
and-why-it-urgent
https://www.who.int/europe/activities/engaging-in-international-agreements-on-
nature-biodiversity-and-health#:~:text=As%20the%20most%20overarching
%20international,protecting%2C%20among%20other%20things%2C%20natural