Noise because the receiver must amplify the weak

signal and recover the information reliably.

Noise Noise can be external to the receiver
or originate within the receiver itself. Both
Noise is an electronic signal that is a
types are found in all receivers, and both
mixture of many random frequencies at
affect the SNR.
many amplitudes that gets added to a radio
or information signal as it is transmitted Signal to Noise Ratio
from one place to another or as it is
processed. Noise is not the same as The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, also
interference from other information signals. designated SNR, indicates the relative
strengths of the signal and the noise in a
When you turn on any AM, FM, or communication system. The stronger the
shortwave receiver and tune it to some signal and the weaker the noise, the higher
position between stations, the hiss or static the S/N ratio. If the signal is weak and the
that you hear in the speaker is noise. Noise noise is strong, the S/N ratio will be low and
also shows up on a black-and-white TV reception will be unreliable. Communication
screen as snow or on a color screen as equipment is designed to produce the
confetti. If the noise level is high enough highest feasible S/N ratio.
and/or the signal is weak enough, the noise
can completely obliterate the original signal. External Noise
Noise that occurs in transmitting digital data
causes bit errors and can result in External noise comes from sources
information being garbled or lost. over which we have little or no control—
industrial, atmospheric, or space.
The noise level in a system is
Regardless of its source, noise shows up as
proportional to temperature and bandwidth,
a random ac voltage and can be seen on an
and to the amount of current flowing in a
oscilloscope. The amplitude varies over a
component, the gain of the circuit, and the
wide range, as does the frequency. One can
resistance of the circuit. Increasing any of
say that noise in general contains all
these factors increases noise. Therefore,
frequencies, varying randomly. This is
low noise is best obtained by using low-gain
generally known as white noise.
circuits, low direct current, low resistance
values, and narrow bandwidths. Keeping the Atmospheric noise and space noise
temperature low can also help. are a fact of life and simply cannot be
eliminated. Some industrial noise can be
Noise is a problem in communication
controlled at the source, but because there
systems whenever the received signals are
are so many sources of this type of noise,
very low in amplitude. When the
there is no way to eliminate it. The key to
transmission is over short distances or
reliable communication, then, is simply to
high-power transmitters are being used,
generate signals at a high enough power to
noise is not usually a problem. But in most
overcome external noise. In some cases,
communication systems, weak signals are
shielding sensitive circuits in metallic
normal, and noise must be taken into
enclosures can aid in noise control.
account at the design stage. It is in the
receiver that noise is the most detrimental
Industrial Noise Extraterrestrial Noise

Industrial noise is produced by Extraterrestrial noise, solar and

manufactured equipment, such as cosmic, comes from sources in space. One
automotive ignition systems, electric of the primary sources of extraterrestrial
motors, and generators. Any electrical noise is the sun, which radiates a wide range
equipment that causes high voltages or of signals in a broad noise spectrum. The
currents to be switched produces transients noise intensity produced by the sun varies
that create noise. Noise pulses of large with time. In fact, the sun has a repeatable
amplitude occur whenever a motor or other 11-year noise cycle. During the peak of the
inductive device is turned on or off. The cycle, the sun produces an awesome amount
resulting transients are extremely large in of noise that causes tremendous radio
amplitude and rich in random harmonics. signal interference and makes many
Fluorescent and other forms of gas-filled frequencies unusable for communication.
lights are another common source of During other years, the noise is at a lower
industrial noise. level.

Atmospheric Noise Noise generated by stars outside our

solar system is generally known as cosmic
The electrical disturbances that noise. Although its level is not as great as
occur naturally in the earth’s atmosphere that of noise produced by the sun, because
are another source of noise. Atmospheric of the great distances between those stars
noise is often referred to as static. Static and earth, it is nevertheless an important
usually comes from lightning, the electric source of noise that must be considered. It
discharges that occur between clouds or shows up primarily in the 10-MHz to 1.5-GHz
between the earth and clouds. Huge static range, but causes the greatest disruptions in
charges build up on the clouds, and when the the 15- to 150-MHz range.
potential difference is great enough, an arc
is created and electricity literally flows Internal Noise
through the air. Lightning is very much like
the static charges that we experience during Electronic components in a receiver
a dry spell in the winter. The voltages such as resistors, diodes, and transistors
involved are, however, enormous, and these are major sources of internal noise. Internal
transient electric signals of megawatt noise, although it is low level, is often great
power generate harmonic energy that can enough to interfere with weak signals. The
travel over extremely long distances. main sources of internal noise in a receiver
are thermal noise, semiconductor noise, and
Like industrial noise, atmospheric
intermodulation distortion. Since the
noise shows up primarily as amplitude
sources of internal noise are well known,
variations that add to a signal and interfere
there is some design control over this type
with it. Atmospheric noise has its greatest
of noise.
impact on signals at frequencies below 30
MHz.
Thermal Noise weak RF signals. Weaker-amplitude signals
will be totally masked by this noise.
Most internal noise is caused by a
phenomenon known as thermal agitation, Since noise is a very broadband
the random motion of free electrons in a signal containing a tremendous range of
conductor caused by heat. Increasing the random frequencies, its level can be reduced
temperature causes this atomic motion to by limiting the bandwidth. If a noise signal is
increase. Since the components are fed into a selective tuned circuit, many of the
conductors, the movement of electrons noise frequencies are rejected and the
constitutes a current flow that causes a overall noise level goes down. The noise
small voltage to be produced across that power is proportional to the bandwidth of
component. Electrons traversing a any circuit to which it is applied. Filtering can
conductor as current flows experience reduce the noise level, but does not
fleeting impediments in their path as they eliminate it entirely.
encounter the thermally agitated atoms. The
Since noise voltage is proportional to
apparent resistance of the conductor thus
resistance value, temperature, and
fluctuates, causing the thermally produced
bandwidth, noise voltage can be reduced by
random voltage we call noise.
reducing resistance, temperature, and
You can actually observe this noise bandwidth or any combination to the
by simply connecting a high-value minimum level acceptable for the given
(megohm) resistor to a very high-gain application. In many cases, of course, the
oscilloscope. The motion of the electrons values of resistance and bandwidth cannot
due to room temperature in the resistor be changed. One thing, however, that is
causes a voltage to appear across it. The always controllable to some extent is
voltage variation is completely random and temperature. Anything that can be done to
at a very low level. The noise developed cool the circuits will greatly reduce the
across a resistor is proportional to the noise. Heat sinks, cooling fans, and good
temperature to which it is exposed. ventilation can help lower noise. Many low-
noise receivers for weak microwave signals
Thermal agitation is often referred to from spacecraft and in radio telescopes are
as white noise or Johnson noise, after J. B. supercooled; i.e., their temperature is
Johnson, who discovered it in 1928. Just as reduced to very low (cryogenic) levels with
white light contains all other light liquid nitrogen or liquid helium.
frequencies, white noise contains all
frequencies randomly occurring at random Semiconductor Noise
amplitudes. A white noise signal therefore
Electronic components such as
occupies, theoretically at least, infinite
diodes and transistors are major
bandwidth. Filtered or band-limited noise is
contributors of noise. In addition to thermal
referred to as pink noise.
noise, semiconductors produce shot noise,
In a relatively large resistor at room transit-time noise, and flicker noise.
temperature or higher, the noise voltage
The most common type of
across it can be as high as several
semiconductor noise is shot noise. Current
microvolts. This is the same order of
fl ow in any device is not direct and linear.
magnitude as or higher than that of many
The current carriers, electrons or holes,
sometimes take random paths from source are designed to operate at a frequency much
to destination, whether the destination is an less than the transistor’s upper limit,
output element, tube plate, or collector or transit-time noise is rarely a problem.
drain in a transistor. It is this random
A third type of semiconductor noise,
movement that produces the shot effect.
flicker noise or excess noise, also occurs in
Shot noise is also produced by the random
resistors and conductors. This disturbance
movement of electrons or holes across a PN
is the result of minute random variations of
junction. Even though current fl ow is
resistance in the semiconductor material. It
established by external bias voltages, some
is directly proportional to current and
random movement of electrons or holes will
temperature. However, it is inversely
occur as a result of dis continuities in the
proportional to frequency, and for this
device. For example, the interface between
reason it is sometimes referred to as 1/f
the copper lead and the semiconductor
noise. Flicker noise is highest at the lower
material forms a discontinuity that causes
frequencies and thus is not pure white noise.
random movement of the current carriers.
Because of the dearth of high-frequency
Shot noise is also white noise in that components, 1/f noise is also called pink
it contains all frequencies and amplitudes noise.
over a very wide range. The amplitude of the
Intermodulation Distortion
noise voltage is unpredictable, but it does
follow a Gaussian distribution curve that is a Intermodulation distortion results
plot of the probability that specific from the generation of new signals and
amplitudes will occur. The amount of shot harmonics caused by circuit nonlinearities.
noise is directly proportional to the amount As stated previously, circuits can never be
of dc bias flowing in a device. The bandwidth perfectly linear, and if bias voltages are
of the device or circuit is also important. incorrect in an amplifier or it is driven into
Another kind of noise that occurs in clipping, it is likely to be more nonlinear than
transistors is called transit-time noise. The intended.
term transit time refers to how long it takes
for a current carrier such as a hole or Expressing Noise levels
electron to move from the input to the
Noise Factor
output. The devices themselves are very tiny,
so the distances involved are minimal, yet The noise factor is the ratio of the
the time it takes for the current carriers to S/N power at the input to the S/N power at
move even a short distance is finite. At low the output. The device under consideration
frequencies, this time is negligible; but when can be the entire receiver or a single
the frequency of operation is high and the amplifier stage.
period of the signal being processed is the
same order of magnitude as the transit time, Amplifiers and receivers always
problems can occur. Transit-time noise have more noise at the output than at the
shows up as a kind of random variation of input because of the internal noise, which is
current carriers within a device, occurring added to the signal. And even as the signal
near the upper cutoff frequency. Transit- is being amplified along the way, the noise
time noise is directly proportional to the generated in the process is amplified along
frequency of operation. Since most circuits with it. The S/N ratio at the output will be
less than the S/N ratio of the input, and so SINAD is the most often used
the noise figure will always be greater than measure of sensitivity for FM receivers used
1. A receiver that contributed no noise to the in two-way radios. It can also be used for AM
signal would have a noise figure of 1, or 0 dB, and SSB radios. Sensitivity is quoted as a
which is not attainable in practice. A microvolt level that will deliver a 12-dB
transistor amplifier in a communication SINAD. It has been determined that voice can
receiver usually has a noise figure of be adequately recovered intelligently with a
several decibels. The lower the noise figure, 12-dB SINAD value. A typical sensitivity
the better the amplifier or receiver. Noise rating may be 0.35 microvolt for a 12-dB
figures of less than about 2 dB are excellent. SINAD.

Noise Temperature

Most of the noise produced in a

device is thermal noise, which is directly
proportional to temperature. Therefore,
another way to express the noise in an
amplifier or receiver is in terms of noise
temperature TN. Noise temperature is
expressed in kelvins.

SINAD

Another way of expressing the

quality and sensitivity of communication
receivers is SINAD—the composite signal
plus the noise and distortion divided by noise
and distortion contributed by the receiver.

Distortion refers to the harmonics

present in a signal caused by nonlinearities.

The SINAD ratio is also used to

express the sensitivity of a receiver. Note
that the SINAD ratio makes no attempt to
discriminate between or to separate noise
and distortion signals.

To obtain the SINAD ratio, an RF

signal modulated by an audio signal (usually
of 400 Hz or 1 kHz) is applied to the input of
an amplifier or a receiver. The composite
output is then measured, giving the S + N +
D figure. Next, a highly selective notch
(band-reject) filter is used to eliminate the
modulating audio signal from the output,
leaving the noise and distortion, or N + D.