Disorders of

Memory
Fathima Sainulabdin
kannur university
libs, Lourdes hospital
What is
Memory?
Memory refers to the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving
information over time, enabling us to learn from past experiences and adapt to
our environment.
 How it works ?
Encoding refers to the translation of incoming stimulus into a unique
neural code that a person’s brain can process.

Storage is the retention of the material encoded over a period of time.

Retrieval is the recovery of the stored or retained information at a later

occasion.
 Sensory Memory
Sensory memory can be referred to as an initial brief storage of
sensory information.
• Duration: 3 to 4 second
• Capacity: all sensory experience
• Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each
sense)

- Echoic - 3-4 sec

- Iconic - 0.5 sec
- Haptic - < 1 sec
 Short term Memory
When the information presented is attended, it is
held in the short-term memory (STM).
• Duration: 0-18 seconds
• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
• Encoding: mainly auditory

Working Memory :
Eg : When meeting someone for the first time, we may repeat their name
silently in the hopes of being able to remember it later.
It comprises the central executive, which
controls attention and coordinates the
phonological loop (handling auditory
information), and the visuospatial
sketchpad (processing visual and spatial
information).
Later, the episodic buffer was added to
integrate information across these
systems and link to long-term memory.
Long term Memory
Processes of
Memory
Registration → Retention →

Retrieval → Recall
 How is Memory Affected ?
1. Encoding failure
Information never goes to LTM as it is not encoded properly
2. Retrieval failure
Retrieval failure is where the information is in long term memory but cannot be
accessed.Information is present, but no cues to find them. E.g., TOT

3. Decay theory (Trace theoy )

Decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade automatically as a function of
time.

4. Displacement theory : Existing information is displaced by new information

5. Interference theory
Interference of earlier or newer information with each other
o Retroactive interference
o Proactive interference
Disorders of Memory
 Disorders of Memory
AMNESIAS PARAMNESIAS
loss of memory Distortions of Memory

PSYCHOGENIC AMNESIA DISTORTIONS OF RECALL

Dissociative Amnesia Retrospective Falsification

False Memory
Katathymic Amnesia Screen Memory
Confabulation
ORGANIC AMNESIA Pseudologia Fantastica
Munchausen Syndrome
Acute Coarse Brain Disease Vorbeireden (Ganser syndrome)
Cryptamnesia
Subacute Coarse Brain Disease
DISTORTIONS OF RECOGNITION
Chronic Coarse Brain Disease
Déjà vu
Anxiety-related Amnesia Jamais vu
Capgras Syndrome
Disorders of Memory
HYPERAMNESIA

Flashbulb Memories
Flashbacks
Eidetic Memory
 Amnesias
Partial or total inability to recall
past experience and events

PSYCHOGENIC AMNESIA ORGANIC AMNESIA

 Interferences
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCES
Old memories interfere with the learning
or recall of new information.

RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCES
New memories interfere with the learning or
recall of old information.
 AMNESIAS
PSYCHOGENIC AMNESIA
Memory loss condition caused by stress or trauma

Dissociative Amnesia: Sudden amnesia occurring during

periods of extreme trauma, lasting hours or days.

Eg: soldier returning from war might experience amnesia of the

events of conflict.
Dissociative Amnesia

1. Sudden and Selective Memory Loss Example:

A person involved in a
The memory loss is abrupt and often occurs during or after house fire may suddenly
forget who they are and
extreme trauma. where they live but can still
Key Feature: use public transport and
interact appropriately with
Loss of personal identity (name, address, history), but complex strangers.
behaviors and social skills remain intact.

2. Discrepancy Between Memory Loss and Functioning

There's a sharp mismatch between severe autobiographical Example:

memory loss and preserved functioning in everyday tasks. An individual accused of a
crime suddenly “forgets”
Clinical Challenge: everything about their past
This makes it hard to distinguish from malingering (faking but behaves appropriately
during court proceedings
symptoms), especially in legal cases.
 Example:
3. Fugue States (Dissociative Fugue) A teacher in Delhi goes missing
after a traumatic breakup and is
found days later in Kolkata, with
The person may travel far away, unaware of their identity, no recollection of how or why they
often found wandering. got there.

4. Overlap with Malingering

Example:
Difficult to differentiate genuine dissociative amnesia from Crime suspect claims amnesia
someone pretending (especially in forensic settings).

5. Associated with Head Injury

Individuals with prior brain trauma may be more

susceptible, blurring lines between organic and psychogenic Example:
causes A soldier with a past concussion
experiences dissociative amnesia
after battlefield trauma.
Katathymic Amnesia:
(Motivated Forgetting): Inability to recall specific painful
memories due to repression.
- No loss of personal identity

-Traumatic incident not available to recall unless triggered or through

psychotherapy

- Involves specific traumatic memories being repressed.

Mechanism:
Freud’s concept of repression—memory is pushed into the
unconscious, but it’s unclear whether it’s voluntary (suppression) or
involuntary (repression)
Example:
A woman cannot remember an
instance of childhood abuse until
triggered by therapy
 AMNESIAS ORGANIC AMNESIA

Acute Course Brain Disease

Subacute Coarse Brain Disease

Chronic Coarse Brain Disease

ORGANIC AMNESIA
Anxiety-related Amnesia

Organic Amnesia refers to memory loss that results from physical damage
or dysfunction of the brain.

It is typically associated with neurological or medical conditions, such as

head injuries, brain infections, degenerative diseases, strokes, or
substance abuse.
 Acute Course Brain Disease
(rapid and sudden onset , progressing rapidly over hours to days)
a. Retrograde Amnesia
Definition: Loss of memory for events before the brain injury.
Example: A car accident victim forgets what happened the day
before the crash.
b. Anterograde Amnesia
Definition: Inability to form new memories after the brain injury.
Example: A patient who, after head trauma, cannot remember what
happened 10 minutes ago.
 Sub Acute Course Brain Disease
(Develops gradually over weeks or months)

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Caused by thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency, mostly due to chronic alcohol use.
Features of mainly anterograde amnesia , along with confabulation (filling
memory gaps with fabricated stories).
Transient Global Amnesia (TGA)
A sudden, temporary loss of memory that resolves within 24 hours.

Common in middle-aged or elderly people.

 Chronic Coarse Brain Disease
( Amnesia extends over years )
Ribot's Law of Memory Regression
1. Progressive Memory Loss: In chronic brain disease,
memory loss extends over many years.
2. Recent Events Affected First: Memory for recent events is
lost before remote events.
Other types of Amnesia

Anxiety Amnesia: Impaired concentration due to anxiety or depressive

illness.
Example: A student with severe test anxiety can't recall answers to questions
during an exam, despite knowing the material well. Their anxiety impairs
their ability to access information.

Depressive Pseudodementia : Severe amnesia resembling dementia,

caused by depressive disorders.
Example: A person with depression reports significant memory
problems and difficulty completing daily tasks. However, after
treatment for depression, their memory and cognitive function
improve, revealing that the symptoms were a result of their depressive
state rather than dementia.
 Paramnesia
Distortions of Memory

Distortions of Recall Distortions of Recognition.

 Distortions of Recall

Retrospective Falsification : Unintentional distortion of memory due to current

emotional state. Often seen in depressive illness, where past experiences are
described in negative terms.

Example: A person with depression describes their entire childhood as unhappy and traumatic, despite
having fond memories of it before becoming depressed. Their current emotional state influences their
recollection of past events

False Memory: Recollection of events that did not occur.Can be constructed around events
that never took place, often influenced by suggestibility.

Example : A person recalls being abducted by aliens as a child, despite no evidence to support this claim.
They may have been influenced by science fiction books or movies, leading to the construction of a false
memory.
 Screen Memory: May be used to avoid recalling painful memories.

_Example_: A person remembers being bullied at school, but the details are vague.
Later, it's revealed that the bullying was actually much more severe, and the
person's memory of it was repressed. The initial memory served as a "screen" to
protect the person from the painful truth.

Confabulation: Typically seen in organic brain disease, where patients fill gaps
in memory with imagined experiences.

_Example_: A patient with Korsakoff's syndrome (a brain disorder often caused by

excessive alcohol consumption) claims to have gone to the park yesterday, despite
being confined to their bed for weeks. They fill gaps in their memory with imagined
experiences.
Pseudologia Fantastica: Pathological lying, often seen in personality disorders.
Example: A person claims to have won numerous awards for their work, despite having no actual
achievements. They may believe their own lies and become defensive if confronted with evidence to the
contrary.

Munchausen's Syndrome: Factitious illness, where individuals present with bogus medical histories.
Example: A person presents to hospitals with fake medical histories and symptoms, often undergoing
unnecessary treatments. They may fabricate stories of illnesses or injuries to gain attention and sympathy.

Vorbeireden: Approximate answers, often seen in hysterical pseudodementia or malingering.

Example: A person is asked to name the capital of France and responds with "Berlin." They may be doing this
intentionally to avoid giving the correct answer or due to a psychological condition.

Cryptamnesia: Forgetting that one is remembering, often seen in creative works.

Example : A writer includes a phrase or sentence in their work that they believe is original, only to discover
later that it's been copied from another author. They may have unconsciously remembered the phrase and
thought it was their own creation.
 Distortions of Recognition
Deja Vu: Feeling of familiarity, despite no basis in fact.

_Example_: A person walks into a room and feels like they've been there before, despite knowing
they've never visited the place. This feeling of familiarity is fleeting and unexplained.

Jamais Vu: Lack of familiarity, despite knowing an event has occurred before.

_Example_: A person meets a friend they've known for years, but suddenly feels like they've
never met before. They may struggle to recall memories or conversations they've shared.

False Reconnaissance: False recognition or misidentification, often seen in organic psychoses

and schizophrenia.

_Example_: A person with schizophrenia insists that a stranger is their long-lost sibling. They may
become convinced of this false identity and act accordingly.
HYPERAMNESIA
Hyperamnesia refers to an exceptional or exaggerated ability to
register, retain, and recall memories.

It is the opposite of amnesia, where memory loss or impairment

occurs.
1. Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memories

associated with intense emotion.
Example: Recalling where you were and what you
were doing when you heard about a significant
event, like the death of Princess Diana.

2. Flashbacks

Sudden, intrusive memories of a traumatic event,

often accompanied by strong emotions.
Commonly seen in post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), substance misuse disorders, and emotional
events.
Can be triggered by various stimuli, and may involve
reliving the traumatic experience.
3. Eidetic memory( photographic memory)

It is a rare ability to recall images or

scenes with remarkable detail and accuracy,
even after seeing them only briefly.
 References

Casey, P., & Kelly, B. (2024). Fish's clinical psychopathology: Signs and symptoms in
psychiatry (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (2020). Cognitive psychology (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.