INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

What is Physics?
Children have an insatiable curiosity about everything around them; Sights, sounds and smells
are a constant source of wonder and amazement. They are eager to learn about nature by looking
at plants, birds, and insects and by trying all sorts of experiments with straws
bottles,pebbles,water,paint,balls and of course food and mud. They also love to take apart a
watch or a mechanical toy to see what is inside and how it works.
A scientist is a person who retains some of this children sense of curiosity and wonder about
nature. A scientist tries to make sense of how nature operates and to discover some underlying
order in the vast array of natural phenomena.
Physics is the study of science related to the matter, energy and new inventions which changed
the world with its new discovery. Without physics, there would be no cars, bikes, solar panels,
airplanes, light, electricity, computers, bulbs, and much more. It is a vast, interesting subject with
many sub-disciplines that mainly concentrate on specific aspects of Physics.
Physics deals with the behavior and composition of matter and its interaction at the most
fundamental level. It is concerned with the nature of physical reality i.e. only with things that can
be measured by instruments.

1
SCIENTIFIC UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Metric (SI) System
The metric system of measurement was created by French scientists in 1790.The metric system
is convenient to use because units of different sizes are related by powers of 10.However,in the
time since the original metric system was introduced many versions of it have appeared.
In order to have a standardized world system the Syste’me International
(𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) was established by international agreement.
SI is now the standard international language of measurement.
A standard units is a unit of measurement that is understood and accepted by people all over the
world.
History of measurement
Measurement is one of the fundamental concepts in science. Without the ability to measure it
would be difficult for scientists to conduct experiments and form theories. The word
′′𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡′′ comes from the Greek word ′′𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛′′ , which means
′′𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛′′ .
Measurement is a technique in which the properties of an object are determined by comparing
them to a standard.
Measurement requires tools to provide scientists with a quantity. A quantity describes how much
of something there is and how many there are. Scientists use a system of measurement still
commonly referred to as the “metric system.” It was the first standardized system of
measurement, developed in France in the 1790s. Today, this form is the standard form of
measurement in every country except the United States

The Seven Base Units of Measurement

Base units are the fundamental units from which all derived units can be obtained. The seven
fundamental quantities and their units are tabulated below.
Quantity SI unit Symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

2
Quantity:
A quantity is anything that can be measured either by instrument or by calculation.eg height,
mass, weight, volume, distance, velocity etc.
There are different types of quantity.
 Basic quantity
 Derived quantity
 Scalar quantity
 Vector quantity
Basic quantity
A basic quantity is a quantity which consists of that quantity only and does not consists of any
other quantities.
In other words, basic quantity is one that cannot be expressed in any other quantities. It
sometimes called fundamental quantity. E.g. mass, time, temperature, amount of substance,
current, luminous intensity, length.
Units
Units are words or groups of words written against numbers to indicate what those numbers
stand for. In other words units are words written against numbers so that those numbers can be
identified.
Units that are internationally accepted are called International System of Units or Syste’me
International d’Unite’s. In short S.I Units.
There are two types of units
 Basic unit
 Derived units
Basic unit
A basic units are units which do not consist of other units. In actual fact, basic units are units of
basic quantities and sometimes called fundamental units.
Basic Quantity Basic Units(𝑆. 𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg)
Temperature (Ɵ) Degree Celsius or kelvin (K)
Current ( I) Ampere(A)
Distance ( s ) Metre (m)
Length( L) or Height (h) Metre (m)
Amount of substance (n) Moles ( mol)
Time (T) Second (s)
Luminous Intensity(LV) Candela (cd)

3
Derived Quantity
A derived quantity is a quantity that consist of two or more basic quantities. It is a quantity that
can be expressed in two or more basic quantities. E.g. area, volume, density, velocity,
acceleration, work, weight, Pressure, kinetic energy etc.
Derived units
Derived units are units which consist of two or more basic units. Units of derived quantities are
called derived units.
Derived quantity Derived units( S.I Units) Symbol
Area Metre square 𝑚2
Volume Metre cube 𝑚2
Density Kilogram per metre cube 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Velocity Metre per second m/s or 𝑚𝑠 −1
Force newton N
Pressure newton per metre square or Pa or 𝑁𝑚−2
Pascal
Acceleration Metre per second square 𝑚𝑠 −2
Energy joules J
Work joules J
E.M.F volts V
Voltage volts V
Frequency Hertz Hz
Electric Charge Coulomb C
Momentum Kilogram metre per second 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1

Rules or Laws for writing SI units

1. Units should be written in full using internationally agreed symbols.
2. The name of the unit should be written in small letters even if it is after the name of
the scientist. Example newton, watt or joules.
3. Symbols are generally written in small letters, for example, metre (m).
4. But the symbol of units named after scientists is written in capital letters, for
example, newton (N).
5. Symbols for derived units which are obtained by multiplication of two units are
written with space, for example, newton second as N s.
6. Symbols for derived units which are obtained by division of two units are written
with solidus (/) or as negative exponent, for example, metre per second as m/s
or 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .
7. Name of the unit may be written in plural form but the symbol is always written in
singular form.
8. Symbols do not end with a full stop unless they are at the end of the sentence.

4
PREFIXES
Numbers in SI units are often written to a power of 10 for convenience. Certain powers of 10 are
indicated by prefixes, which can be used with all of the SI units and derived units.
Prefixes are symbols used to indicate decimal multiples and submultiples which make it very
simple in presenting very large figures or very small figure.
Table below shows the prefixes and their corresponding magnitude.
Submultiples Prefix Symbol
10−1 Deci 𝑑
10−2 Centi 𝑐
10−3 Milli 𝑚
10−6 Micro 𝜇
10−9 Nano 𝑛
10−12 Pico 𝑝
10−15 Femto 𝑓
10−18 Atto 𝑎

Multiples Prefix Symbol

10 deca 𝑑𝑎
102 hecto ℎ
103 kilo 𝑘
106 Mega 𝑀
109 Giga 𝐺
1012 Tera 𝑇
1015 Peta 𝑃
1018 Exa 𝐸

Express the following in metres.

a) 12.6 fm b) 45.23 Mm c. 20.3mm

Solution
a) 12.6fm = 12.6 × 10−15 𝑚 b ) 45.23Mm = 45.23 × 106 𝑚

c) 20.3mm = 20.3 × 10−3 𝑚

Simplify the following using the appropriate prefixes.

a) 0.0000153𝑔 b)0.0000000761𝑚 c) 6410000𝐽

Solution
a) 15.3 × 10−6 𝑔 = 15.3𝜇𝑔 b)76.1 × 10−9 𝑚 = 76.1𝑛𝑚 c)6.41 × 106 = 6.41𝑀𝐽.

5
 SUMMARY
Measurement is nothing but a process of associating numbers with physical quantities and the
phenomenon. Measurement is the most fundamental concept in science. In 1790, the metric
system was introduced in France. It was France’s first standardised measurement system. Now, it
is the standard form of measurement, which is accepted in every country except the United
States. There are seven central base units of measurement, and they are:

1. Length – Metre
2. Mass – Kilogram
3. Temperature – Kelvin
4. Amount of substance – Mole
5. Luminous intensity – Candela
6. Electric current – Ampere
7. Time – Second
The unit derived from these seven base units is determined by the International System of Units
called SI-derived units. These derived units are dimensionless or can be described as a product of
one or more base units.

ASSIGNMENT 1

1. What are the fundamental units of measurement and derived units?

2. The speed of light is ________.

a. 299,792,458 m/s
b. 299,792,458 km/s
c. 499,792,458 km/s
d. 499,792,458 m/s

3. How many base units are there? Explain each of them

4. What is the system of units?

5. What are the advantages of the SI system of units?

6. Measurement is a process in which the properties of an object are determined by comparing
them to a standard or known quantity.

a. True
b. False
7. The unit of luminous intensity is _______.

6
 a. Metre (m)
b. Newton (N)
c. Candela (cd)
d. Becquerel (Bq)
8. Becquerel is the unit of ________.

a. Frequency
b. Radioactive decay
c. Electrical capacitance
d. Luminous intensity

9. What is the smallest unit of time?

10. Fill in the blank.

The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many entities as there are atoms in
______________ of carbon-12.

a. 0.012 kg
b. 0.012 gram
c. 0.020 kg
d. 0.020 gram

ASSIGNMENT 2

1. What is the unit of electrical capacitance?

2. What are the significant figures?
3. What is meant by dimensional units?
4. Define magnetic flux.
5. What is second?

ASSIGNMENT 3

1. Which of the following are not SI units.

 Ampere
 Metre
 Joules
 Kilogram
 Pound

7
  Watt
 Centimetre
 Mole
 Grams
 Coulomb
 Candela
 Minutes
2. What is a derived unit?
b) State five
i) Fundamental quantities and their units
ii) Derived quantities and their units

Group work

Que 1. Which is the standard unit of Power?

(a) Protons
(b) Watt
(c) Volts
(d) Hertz

Que 2. Which of the following given options represents Distance?

(a) Ohm
(b) Joule
(c) Light year
(d) Faraday

Que 3. Ampere is the unit of

(a) Electric Current
(b) Capacitance
(c) Electric Potential
(d) Resistance

Que 4. Standard unit in which Capacitance can be measured?

(a) Newton
(b) Fermi
(c) Hertz
(d) Farad

Que 5. Force can be measured in

(a) Rutherford
(b) Dyne

8
(c) Newton
(d) Ohm

Que 6. What does Nautical Mile refer to

(a) It is a measuring unit of wavelength of light
(b) It is the unit of distance travelled through the water
(c) It is a measurement of the speed of Submarines
(d) It is a unit for time

Que 7. What is the unit for measuring Heat?

(a) Joule
(b) Ampere
(c) Calorie
(d) Watt

Que 8. Which of the following is not correct of the given options?

(a) Pressure – Pascal
(b) Force – Newton
(c) Work – Joule
(d) Heat – Ampere

Que 9. Which of the following is used for measuring the speed of a ship?
(a) Nautical Mile
(b) Knot
(c) Light year
(d) Calorie

Que 10. Wavelength can be measured in the

(a) Angstrom
(b) Calorie
(c) Pascal
(d) Mach

Que 11. What the Bar is the measuring unit for

(a) Mass
(b) Density
(c) Pressure
(d) Heat

Que 12. Which of the following given options are used for measuring Earthquakes?
(a) Bar
(b) Byte
(c) Cusec
(d) Richter scale

9
 Que 13. Find the odd one out.
(a) Kelvin
(b) Joule
(c) Celsius
(d) Fahrenheit

Que 14. Which of the following given options is used to measure the rate of flowing
water?
(a) Dobson
(b) Poise
(c) Maxwell
(d) Cusec

Que 15. The pyrometer can be used for

(a) Work
(b) High Temperature
(c) Density
(d) Heat

Que 16. Dobson is the unit to measure?

(a) Ozone layer
(b) Diamond
(c) Stars
(d) Depth of sea

Que 17. Mach is related to

(a) High Speed
(b) Low Speed
(c) High Temperature
(d) Low Temperature
Que 18. Which one of the following is not the unit for measuring length?
(a)Micron
(b)Nanometer
(c)millimeter
(d) Joule

Que 19. A megawatt is related to

(a) Saving of Power

(b) Consumption of power
(c) Generation of power
(d) Loss of power

Que 20. Which one of the following given options can best describe “Light year”?

10
(a) It is a speed of sound
(b) It is a distance covered by the sound
(c) It is a distance covered by light
(d) It is the speed of light

11
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS/EQUATION

Each derived unit in mechanics can be reduced to factors of the base units mass, length and
time. If one ignores the unit system, that is whether it is SI or British then the factors are
called dimensions.

Dimensional equation is an equation, which expresses a physical quantity in terms of

dimensions.

The dimension of a physical quantity is defined as the power to which the fundamental
quantities are raised to express the physical quantity. The dimension of mass, length, and
time are represented as [M], [L] and [T] respectively. Or simply it’s an algebraic symbol
assigned to individual quantity. In a given system of dimensions for the three chosen
fundamental quantities of length, mass and time are given as follows:
Quantity Dimensions
Mass (kg) M
Length(m) L
Time(s) T

The dimension of a quantity is symbolically written as [ ].

When referring to the dimension of a quantity𝑥, we place it in square brackets: [𝑥].

Thus [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠] means the dimensions of mass.

Example 1

An area A is the product of two length. So its dimension.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ

[𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎] = [𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ] × [𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ]

[𝐴] = 𝐿 × 𝐿

[𝐴] = 𝐿2

Example 2

To find the dimension of volume, the volume is expressed mathematically as.

Volume = length × 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Taking the dimension of both sides of the equation:

12
[𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] = [𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡] × [𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ] × [ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡]

[𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] = 𝐿 × 𝐿 × 𝐿

[𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] = 𝐿3

[𝑉] = 𝐿3

Example 3

To find the dimension of velocity, the velocity is expressed

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Velocity = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Taking dimension of both sides of the equation

[𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒]
[𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦] = [𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒]

𝐿
[𝑢] = = 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑇

Example 4

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
a. Speed = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

What is the dimensional equation of speed?

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

What is the dimensional equation of Density?

Example 5

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

[𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦]
[𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] = [𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒]

𝐿𝑇 −1
= 𝑇

[𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] = 𝐿𝑇 −2

13
Example 6

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

What is the dimensional equation of force?

Work = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

What is the dimensional equation of work?

Example 7
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

[𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒]
[𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒] = [𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎]

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
= 𝐿2

= 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2

Example 8

Given that momentum of a body is the product of mass and velocity of the body. Find the
dimensions of momentum.

Solution

Momentum= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

[𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚] = [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠] × [𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦]

[𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚] = 𝑀 × 𝐿𝑇 −1

[𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚] = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1

GROUP WORK
𝑚𝑀
If 𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑟 2 , where m and M are two separate masses, r is the distance between the masses, G is
the universal gravitational constant and F is the force of attraction between m and M. Find the
dimension of G.

Answer: [𝐿3 𝑇 −2 𝑀−1 ]

14
SUMARRY OF QUANTITIES AND THEIR DIMENSIONS.
Quantity Dimension
Area 𝐿2
Volume 𝐿3
Velocity 𝐿𝑇 −1
Speed 𝐿𝑇 −1
Density 𝑀𝐿−3
Acceleration 𝐿𝑇 −2
Force 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
Pressure 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
Momentum 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1
Angular Momentum 𝐿2 𝑀𝑇 −1
Heat 𝐿2 𝑀𝑇 2
Power 𝐿2 𝑀𝑇 −3
Work 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
Weight 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
Torque 𝐿2 𝑀𝑇 −2
Wavelength 𝐿
Young’s Modulus 𝐿−1 𝑀𝑇 −1

Quantities Having the Same Dimensional Formula

1. Impulse and momentum.

2. Work, torque, the moment of force, energy.
3. Angular momentum, Planck’s constant, rotational impulse
4. Stress, pressure, modulus of elasticity, energy density.
5. Force constant, surface tension, surface energy.
6. Angular velocity, frequency, velocity.
7. Gravitational potential, latent heat.
8. Thermal capacity, entropy, universal gas constant and Boltzmann’s constant.
9. Force, thrust.
10. Power, luminous flux.

15
Applications of Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is very important when dealing with physical quantities. In this section, we
will learn about some application of dimensional analysis.

Fourier laid down the foundation of dimensional analysis.

The dimensional formulas are used to:

 Find the units of quantities.

 Derive an equation between quantities.
 Check the validity of an equation.

Using Dimensional Method To Find The Units Of Quantities

If the dimension of a quantity is known, then the unit of the quantity is written to take the same
form as the dimensions.

Example:

Suppose the dimension of a quantity is 𝐿𝑇 −2 . L is is the dimension of distance, which has unit 𝑚
and 𝑇 is the dimension for time and so has a unit of 𝑠.

Hence the unit of 𝐿𝑇 −2 is 𝑚𝑠 −2 .

Example:

Suppose the dimension of a quantity is 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1. Then the unit of that quantity is 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 𝑠 −1.

Example:

Find the units of a quantity whose dimension are 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

Solution

M is the dimension of mass which has unit 𝑘𝑔.

L is the dimension of distance/displacement/length, which has unit 𝑚.

T is the dimension of time, which has unit of 𝑠.

Hence unit of 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 is 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2 .

16
Example:

The dimension of work/energy is 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2, find the fundamental units of work/energy and hence
derive an equation for work.

Solution

𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2

𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑚

𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑚 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Example:

The force per unit length acting normally to a line drawn on the surface of a liquid is known as
surface tension 𝛾.what is the unit of measurement of surface tension?

Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑁
𝛾 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚 = 𝑁/𝑚

Or

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
𝛾=[ ] = [𝑀𝑇 −2 ] = 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −2
𝐿

Using Dimensional Method to Check the Validity of an Equation

Checking the Dimensional Consistency:

As we know, only similar physical quantities can be added or subtracted. Thus, two quantities
having different dimensions cannot be added together. For example, we cannot add mass and
force or electric potential and resistance.

For any given equation, the principle of homogeneity of dimensions is used to check the
correctness and consistency of the equation. The dimensions of each component on either side of
the sign of the equality are checked, and if they are not the same, the equation is considered
wrong.

17
So in simple terms; using dimensional method to check whether an equation is correct or not.
The dimensions of both sides of the equation are taken. If the dimension on both side of the
equation are the same, the equation is correct or valid.

Let us consider the equation given below

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2

The dimensions of the LHS and RHS are calculated

LHS: [𝑀][𝐿𝑇 −1 ]2 = [𝑀][𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

RHS:[𝑀][𝐿𝑇 2 ][𝐿] = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

As we can see, the dimensions of the LHS and the RHS are the same. Hence the equation is
consistent or correct.

Example:

Check the validity of the equation 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 where 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑢 =

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.

Solution

Given 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

Taking dimension of the quantities

[𝑣] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 , [𝑢] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 , [𝑎] = 𝐿𝑇 −2 , [𝑇] = 𝑇

𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇

𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −1

𝐿𝑇 −1 = 2𝐿𝑇 −1

Since the dimensions on the left hand side and the right hand side are the same. The equation is
valid or correct.

NB: Numbers are not dimensional quantities.

18
Example:

Check the validity of the equation. 𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 Where V= final velocity, u= initial velocity,
a=acceleration and s= distance.

Solution

[𝑣] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 , [𝑢] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 , [𝑎] = 𝐿𝑇 −2 , [𝑠] = 𝐿

Substituting the dimensions.

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ]2 = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]2 + 2[𝐿𝑇 −2 ]𝐿

𝐿2 𝑇 −2 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 + 2𝐿2 𝑇 −2

𝐿2 𝑇 −2 = 3𝐿2 𝑇 −2

Dimensions on the left side of the equation is the same as dimension on the right hand side.
Hence the equation is valid.

Example:

𝑎𝑡 2
Check whether the equation given is correct or not: 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2

[𝑠] = 𝐿 , [𝑢] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 , [𝑡] = 𝑇 , [𝑎] = 𝐿𝑇 −2

𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇 2
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑇 + 2

𝐿
𝐿 =𝐿+2

3
𝐿 = 2𝐿

Both sides of the equation have the same dimensions of L. The equation is therefore valid.

Example:

𝑃
The velocity V of longitudinal waves in air of density 𝜌 under a pressure P is given as.𝑉 = √𝜌

Is this relation dimensionally correct?

Solution

[𝑉] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 [𝑃] = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 [𝜌] = 𝑀𝐿−3

19
 1
1
−1 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 2
𝐿𝑇 =[ ] = [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]2 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑀𝐿 −3

Example:

Show by dimensional analysis that the product of pressure P of a gas and volume increase ∆𝑉 is
the same as work done by a gas.

Solution

Unit of work done W = 𝐽

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Unit of 𝑃 × ∆𝑉 = [ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ] × [𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒]

𝑁
= [𝑚2 ] × [𝑚3 ]

= [𝑁𝑚]

=𝐽

Can you think of an alternate solution to the problem?

Example:

Check the validity of the equation 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑣 where 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑔 =

𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.

Solution

[𝐹] = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 , [𝑚] = 𝑀, [𝑔] = 𝐿𝑇 −2 , [𝑉] = 𝐿𝑇 −1

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 + 𝐿𝑇 −1

The dimension on the left side of the equation is not the same as dimensions on the right hence
the given equation is not valid.

Example:

Check the validity of the equation: 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑉 − 𝜌𝑎 where 𝑤 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 , 𝑎 =

𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦.

Solution

[𝑤] = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 , [𝑉] = 𝐿𝑇 −1 , [𝜌] = 𝑀𝐿−3 , [𝑎] = 𝐿𝑇 −2 , [𝐹] = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

20
𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 = (𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 )(𝐿𝑇 −1 ) − (𝑀𝐿−3 )(𝐿𝑇 −2 )

𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 − 𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2

The dimensions on both sides of equation are different. Hence the equation is not correct or not
valid.

Using Dimensional Method to Derive an Equation between Different Quantities

Deducing the Relation among Physical Quantities:

Dimensional analysis is also used to deduce the relation between two or more physical
quantities. If we know the degree of dependence of a physical quantity on another, that is, the
degree to which one quantity changes with the change in another, we can use the principle of
consistency of two expressions to find the equation relating to these two quantities. This can be
understood more easily through the following illustration.

Example:

Derive the formula for centripetal force F acting on a particle moving in a uniform circle.

Solution

As we know, the centripetal force acting on a particle moving in a uniform circle depends on its
mass m, velocity v and the radius r of the circle. Hence, we can write

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥 𝑣 𝑦 𝑟 𝑧

Writing the dimensions of these quantities,

[𝐹] = [𝑚]𝑥 [𝑣]𝑦 [𝑟] 𝑧

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝑀 𝑥 (𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑦 𝐿𝑧

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝑀 𝑥 𝐿𝑦+𝑧 𝑇 −𝑦

As per the principle of homogeneity, we can write

𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1, 𝑦 = 2

Solving the above three equations, we get,

𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 , 𝑧 = −1

Hence, the centripetal force F can be represented as,

21
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑚1 𝑣 2 𝑟 −1

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=𝐾 𝑟

To derive a relation or an equation between different quantities, the following are the steps
to follow:

Step 1:

The subject of the equation must first be identified. The subject then depends proportionally on
the other quantities.

Suppose a quantity 𝐴 depends on quantity 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶. The quantity 𝐴 is the subject and so depends
proportionally on 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶. According to the expression:

𝐴 ∝ 𝐵𝐶

Step 2:

The depending quantities 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 are raised to power 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.That is

𝐴 ∝ 𝐵𝑥𝐶𝑦

Step 3:

The proportional sign is removed and is replaced by equation sign and a constant .i.e.

𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑥 𝐶 𝑦 …………………(1). This is the equation between the quantities.

Step 4:

To find the powers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦. the dimensions of both sides of the equation are taken.

[𝐴] = 𝐾[𝐵]𝑥 [𝐶]𝑦

Comparing the symbols on both sides, the values of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are determined.The values of
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are substituted into equation(1) and simplified. The simplified equation gives the final
relationship or equation between the quantities.

22
Examples:

The period 𝑇 of a simple pendulum depends on the length 𝐿 and the acceleration due to
gravity 𝑔. Use the method of dimension to establish the equation between 𝑇, 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔.

Solution

𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.

𝑇 ∝ 𝐿𝑥 𝑔 𝑦

𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿𝑥 𝑔 𝑦 (𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘 !!!)

[𝑇] = 𝐾[𝐿]𝑥 [𝑔]𝑦

𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿𝑋 (𝐿𝑇 −2 )𝑌

𝑇 = 𝐿𝑥+𝑦 𝑇 −2𝑦

By comparison
1
1 = −2𝑦, 𝑦 = − 2

0=𝑥+𝑦

𝑥 = −𝑦

1 1
𝑥 = − (− 2) = 2

1 1
𝑇 = 𝐾𝐿2 𝑔−2

𝐿
𝑇 = 𝐾 √𝑔

Example:

The force 𝐹 acting on a conical pendulum depends on the mass 𝑚, the velocity v and the radius r
of the horizontal circle described. Derive an equation between 𝐹, 𝑚, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 using the method
of dimension.

Solution

𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑥 𝑣 𝑦 𝑟 𝑧

23
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑥 𝑣 𝑦 𝑟 𝑧

Writing the dimensions of these quantities,

[𝐹] = 𝐾[𝑚]𝑥 [𝑣]𝑦 [𝑟] 𝑧

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝐾𝑀 𝑥 (𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑦 𝐿𝑧

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝐾𝑀 𝑥 𝐿𝑦+𝑧 𝑇 −𝑦

As per the principle of homogeneity, we can write

𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1, 𝑦 = 2

Solving the above three equations, we get,

𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 , 𝑧 = −1

Hence, the centripetal force F can be represented as,

𝐹 = 𝐾𝑚1 𝑣 2 𝑟 −1

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=𝐾 𝑟

Example:

The frequency 𝑓 of a vibrating string depends on the length 𝐿 of the string, the tension 𝑇 in the
string and the mass unit length 𝜇 of the string.

Establish an equation between 𝑓, 𝐿, 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇.

Solution

𝑓 ∝ 𝐿𝑥 𝑇 𝑦 𝜇 𝑧

𝑓 = 𝐾𝐿𝑥 𝑇 𝑦 𝜇 𝑧

[𝑓] = 𝑘[𝐿]𝑥 [𝑇]𝑦 [𝜇] 𝑧

𝑇 −1 = 𝐾𝐿𝑥 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 )𝑦 (𝑀𝐿−1 ) 𝑧

By comparison
1
−1 = −2𝑦, 𝑦 = 2

24
0= 𝑦+𝑧

𝑧 = −𝑦
1
𝑧 = −2

0=𝑥+𝑦+𝑧

𝑥 = −1
1 1
𝑓 = 𝐾𝐿−1 𝑇 2 𝜇 −2

𝐾 𝑇
𝑓 = 𝐿 √𝜇ƞ

ASSIGNMENT 1:

ℎ𝜌
1. Show that the equation,𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑔 is dimensionally correct where
𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.

2. The period,𝑇 of a simple pendulum depends on the mass,𝑚 of the pendulum bob, length,
length,𝑙 of the string and acceleration due to gravity 𝑔. Derive an exact equation for the period if
𝐾 = 2𝜋.

3. The viscous drag,𝐹 on a sphere depends on the radius,𝑟 of the sphere, terminal velocity,𝑣 and
the coefficient of viscosity ƞ. Use dimensional analysis to find the exact equation for F if 𝐾 =
6𝜋.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

ƞ= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

4. Use dimensional analysis to find a formula for the velocity,𝑉 of a transverse wave in a string
assuming 𝑉 depends on the tension,𝐹, in the string, length,𝑙 of the string and the mass,𝑚 of the
string.

ASSIGNMENT 2:

1. What is the difference between a dimensional and a non-dimensional quantity? Give one
example of each quantity. Determine the unit of measurement of the following:

I) Universal gravitational constant 𝐺.

25
ii) Resistivity,𝜌.

2. Show that the following equation is dimensionally correct: velocity of transverse wave in a
𝑇
wire under Tension 𝑇 is 𝑉 = √𝜇 where 𝜇 the linear density of the wire

𝑘𝑒𝑦: [𝜇] = 𝑀𝐿−1

3. Show that the product of mass and velocity has same unit as linear impulse.

4. The resistive force 𝐹 encountered by a body moving at high speeds depends on the speed 𝑉 of
the body, the surface area 𝐴 of the body and the density 𝜌 of the body. Derive the equation of the
force.

ASSIGNMENT 3

1. a)State four fundamental quantities and their units.

b) Find the dimensions of the following: Power, momentum and moment of a force.

c) The retarding force 𝐹 on a body moving through a fluid depends on the velocity of motion
𝑉,surface area 𝐴 and the density 𝜌 of the fluid.Using the method of dimensions, establish the
relationship between 𝐹, 𝑉, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌.
1
2. a)Find the unit of a quantity whose dimensions are 𝑀2 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 .

b) Prove the validity of the equation: 𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, where 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑢 =

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 , 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

3. a)List five derive units.

b) Explain the term derived quantities.

c) Check whether the equation below given is correct or not.

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= + 𝑚𝑔
𝑟

Where 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛.

26
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH, MASS AND TIME

LENGTH:

In 1792, the newborn Republic of France established a new system of weights and measures. Its
cornerstone was the meter, defined to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to
the equator. Later, for practical reasons, this Earth standard was abandoned and the meter came
to be defined as the distance between two fine lines engraved near the ends of a platinum–
iridium bar, the standard meter bar, which was kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures near Paris. Accurate copies of the bar were sent to standardizing laboratories
throughout the world. These secondary standards were used to produce other, still more
accessible standards, so that ultimately every measuring device derived its authority from the
standard meter bar through a complicated chain of comparisons. Eventually, a standard more
precise than the distance between two fine scratches on a metal bar was required. In 1960, a new
standard for the meter, based on the wavelength of light, was adopted. Specifically, the standard
for the meter was redefined to be 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of a particular orange-red light
emitted by atoms of krypton-86 (a particular isotope, or type, of krypton) in a gas discharge tube
that can be set up anywhere in the world. This awkward number of wavelengths was chosen so
that the new standard would be close to the old meter-bar standard.

By 1983, however, the demand for higher precision had reached such a point that even the
krypton-86 standard could not meet it, and in that year a bold step was taken. The meter was
redefined as the distance traveled by light in a specified time interval. In the words of the 17th
General Conference on Weights and Measures:

The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299
792 458 of a second.

Length: The meter is defined as the distance traveled by light during a precisely specified time
interval.

Measurement of Length

Length: Length is a distance between two points in space.

a) Using the metre rule: Straight edges and distances are measured with a metre rule or
surveyors tape. The metre rule is graduated in centimetres and millimetres. The smallest
graduation of the metre rule is 1mm or 0.1cm. This is its reading accuracy. Measurement can be
estimated up to half this smallest graduation, i.e. 0.5mm or 0.05cm.This is the estimated
uncertainty. Thus, we can record a length as 21.55 ± 0.05𝑐𝑚.

In measuring with a metre rule,a necessary precaution is to avoid the error of parallax by looking
vertically downwards on the markings instead of slantingly.

27
Large distances such as length or width of a football field can be measured with steel tapes or
surveyors tapes graduated in metres.

b) Using the vernier caliper: This is used to measure short distances where ordinary rule cannot
be applied.

These can measure lengths more accurately than the metre rule.To measure small lengths, to the
nearest 0.1𝑚𝑚 e.g. the thickness of a metre rule, the internal and external diameters of a tube, or
the diameter of a rod, we use vernier callipers. This device gives a more accurate determination
of such lengths.

The instrument has sets of jaws and two scales,𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠.The vernier
scale which slides on the main scale is a smaller scale which enables us to measure a fraction of
the smallest division on the main scale. The main scale is graduated in centimetres and
millimetres. The vernier scale is constructed by dividing a 9𝑚𝑚 length into 10 equal intervals
such that each vernier division has a length of 0.9𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.09𝑐𝑚.the difference in length
between a vernier scale division and a main scale division is thus 0.1𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.01𝑐𝑚.

For any measurement, the readings on both the main and the vernier scales are added together to
obtain the total reading of the length. For example if the reading is 2.24𝑐𝑚. This is obtained by
recording the reading on the main scale immediately preceding the zero mark on the vernier
scale; we then record the number of the graduation on the vernier which comes most directly in
line with the graduation on the main scale. This gives the decimal place in millimetres(𝑚𝑚) or
the second decimal place in centimetres(𝑐𝑚).The two readings are then added up
(22𝑚𝑚 + 0.4𝑚𝑚).

The vernier calipers can usually measure to an accuracy of 0.01𝑐𝑚. The necessary precaution in
using this instrument is always to note if it has any zero error. This is done by setting the zeros of
the main scale and the vernier to coincide. If they do not coincide, any difference is noted as the
‘zero error’. This is added or subtracted in all subsequent readings as the case may be.

The reading accuracy of the vernier calipers is 0.01𝑐𝑚.

c) Using the micrometer screw gauge:

For accurate measurement of still smaller lengths such as the diameter of a wire,the diameter of a
small ball(𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑏) or the thickness of a piece of paper, we use the micrometer
screw gauge.It can measure to an accuracy of 0.001cm.Before any measurement are made with
the screw gauge, its anvil and spindle should be closed to check for zero error.

Like the vernier calipers,the micrometer screw gauge has a main scale and a vernier scale. The
main scale is graduated in millimeters.The circular vernier scale consists of 50 equal
divisions.When the screw head carrying the circular vernier scale is turned round once,it moves a
0.5
distance of 0.5mm along the main scale. Thus one division on the vernier scale equals 50 or
0.01mm on the main scale.

28
To measure with the instrument, the object is placed between the jaws
(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒) which are then closed using the ratchet until the object is
firmly gripped by the jaws. The main scale reading is then noted to the nearest.

d)Steel or Surveyors tape

e) Spherometer – length of curved surfaces

f) Opisometer – for measuring length of curved lines

Mass and Weight

What is Mass?

It is one of the fundamental quantities in Physics and the most basic property of matter. We can
define mass as the measure of amount of matter in a body. The SI unit of mass is kilogram(𝑘𝑔).

Note: The mass of a body does not change at any time. Only for certain extreme cases when a
huge amount of energy is given or taken from a body. For example: In a nuclear reaction, tiny
amount of matter is converted into a huge amount of energy, this reduces the mass of the
substance.

What is Weight?

It is the measure of the force of gravity acting on a body.

The formula for weight is given by: 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔

As weight is a force its SI unit is also the same as that of force, SI unit of weight is
Newton(𝑁).Looking at the expression of weight we see that it depends on mass and acceleration
due to gravity, the mass may not change but the acceleration due to gravity does change from
place to place. To understand this concept let’s take this example,

Shape of the earth is not completely spherical, but an oblate spheroid, therefore a person standing
at the equator is far away from the center of the earth than a person standing at the North Pole, as
acceleration due to gravity is proportionally to the inverse of the square of the distance between
two objects, a person standing at the north pole would experience more weight as he is closer to
the center of earth than a person standing at the equator.

29
How is Weight Measured?

Following is the formula of a body which has mass 𝑚 and weight of magnitude 𝑤:

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔

So it can be said that the weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass.

North Pole

Equator

Oblate spheroid
What is the Difference between Mass and Weight?
Mass Weight
1.Mass can never be zero 1. Weight can be zero. As in space if no
gravity acts upon an object, its weight
becomes zero.
2. Mass is a scalar quantity. It has magnitude. 2. Weight is a vector quantity. It has
magnitude and is directed towards the center
of the earth.
3. Mass is commonly measured in kilograms 3. Weight is commonly measured in Newton.
and grams.
4. Mass doesn’t change according to location 4. Weight varies according to location.
i.e. it is constant.
5. The mass may be measured using an 5. Weight is measured using a spring balance.
ordinary balance.(𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, )
Other instrument used for measuring mass includes: a lever balance, chemical balance, electric
balance, top pan balance.
What is Weightlessness?
Have you ever been in an elevator?
Noticed how you feel like your weight is been reduced while the elevator goes down? That is
because the weight you feel is the perceived weight or ‘’effective weight’ ’this is the equal and
opposite force the floor exerts on you due to your weight. Now if we remove the floor and let
you fall freely, there is nothing to exert a force on you and hence you feel weightless even
though there is acceleration due to gravity and mass. This is because the effective weight is equal
to zero. Now let’s come back to our elevator when the elevator is going down it is actually

30
moving in the direction of gravity, hence reducing net acceleration due to gravity, thereby
reducing your weight.
The same happens with astronauts in the international space station, as the space stations are
orbiting the earth it is actually falling towards the earth indefinitely and everything in it is falling
including the astronauts so the astronaut experience weightlessness and can float freely around.
In all these scenarios the most important thing we have to notice is that weight can increase or
decrease depending on the acceleration due to gravity but the mass remains unchanged.
Relation between Weight and Mass
Consider a body having large mass and large weight. Example of this situation is a large object
which is hard to throw because the weight of this object is large. Therefore, the relation between
weight and mass can be derived with the help of Newton’s second law which explains that the
free falling object has an acceleration ′′𝑔′′ as the magnitude.
If an object with a mass of 1kg falls with an acceleration of 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2, then magnitude of force is
given as :
F= ma
=1kg × 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2
=9.8kgm𝑠 −2
=9.8N
Therefore, it can be concluded that the relation between weight and mass of object with 1kg
mass will have a weight of 9.8N.
Example
1. An astronaut has a mass of 60kg. How much does he weigh on earth and on the
moon?(𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2 ).
Solution
𝑤𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 = 60 × 9.8 = 588𝑁
𝑤𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 = 60 × 1.6 = 96𝑁
2. Some mangoes are placed on a spring balance and found to weigh 4.9N.What is their mass?
Solution
𝑤 4.9
𝑚 = 𝑔 =9.8 = 0.5𝑘𝑔

31
Measurement of Area and Volume
Difference between Area and Volume
The key difference between area and volume is: the area is the region covered by a 2d-shape
whereas volume is the space occupied by a 3d shape.
There are many types of shape and sizes in geometry. Every shape has different properties and
formulas. The area and volume of different shapes vary from each other.
The terms ‘Area and Volume’ can create considerable confusion in understanding the terms.
Although they seem to be of like a similar quantity of measurement, in reality, they are very
much different from each other. Let us understand the underlying meaning of both terms.
What is Area?
The area is defined as the region covered by two-dimensional shapes. The area of different
shapes depends on their dimensions.it is measured in square units.
The 2d shape include circle, triangle, parallelogram, trapezium, pentagon etc. Hence, all these
shapes have different areas.
What is Volume?
Volume is a parameter that is defined only for three-dimensional objects. For each three-
dimensional objects, such as sphere, cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone, etc., the volume is different. It
is measured in cubic units.
What is the difference between Area and Volume?
Area Volume
It is to be noted that The volume is always
area is always defined defined for a three-
for two dimensions dimensional object.
objects or plane figures.
The area is the amount Volume is defined as
of space occupied by a the space occupied by a
two-dimensional flat three-dimensional
object in a plane. object.
The unit of area is in The unit of volume is in
square units. cubic units.
It is measured in 2 It is measured in 3
dimension. dimension.
Examples: Square, Example: Sphere, cube,
circle, rectangle, etc. cylinder, etc.

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Differences of Area and Volume of Shapes
Name of the shape Area
Circle 𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)
Semicircle 1
𝜋𝑟 2
2
Triangle 1
× (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) × (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
2
Square 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 2
Rectangle 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Parallelogram 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Rhombus 1
× (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠)
2
Trapezium 1
× (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒) × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2

Let us find the volumes of different shapes here:

Name of the shape Volume
Cube 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 3
Cuboid (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡) × (𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ) × (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
Sphere 4
𝜋𝑟 3
3
Hemisphere 2
𝜋𝑟 3
3
Cylinder 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Cone 1
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
Prism (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) × (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

Solved Examples
Q.1: What is the area of a rectangle with length=3cm and width=2cm?
Solution: Given,
Length of rectangle = 3cm
Width= 2cm
Area of rectangle = length × width = 3 × 2 = 6𝑐𝑚2
Q.2: What is the volume of the cube if the edge length is 5cm?
Solution: Given, edge length, 𝑎 = 5𝑐𝑚.
Volume of cube = 𝑎3
Volume of cube =53 = 125𝑐𝑚3

33
Measuring the volume of:

1. Regular objects:
For regular solids, the volume may be easily calculated from the physical dimensions.
2. Liquid:
To measure the volume of a liquid certain devices are used: Measuring cylinder, measuring flask,
pipette, burette, etc.
The measuring flask and the pipette are used for getting fixed pre-determined volumes.
3. Irregular objects:
The volume of an irregular shaped solid can be measured by immersion in a liquid in a
displacement can or measuring cylinder. The principle used is that the irregular solid will
displace its own volume of liquid when completely immersed.
Measuring the volume of an irregular object using the displacement method:
1. Measure a certain quantity of liquid in a measuring cylinder. Let it be 𝑉1.
2. Now, drop the object gently into the measuring cylinder and note the level of the liquid. Let it
be 𝑉2 .
3. Take the difference between the two levels. It is the volume of the object dropped into the
liquid.
4. Volume of the object,𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
Alternative
If the object has an irregular shape, the volume can be measured using a displacement can.
The displacement can is filled with water above a narrow spout and allowed to drain until the
water is level with the spout.
As the irregular object is lowered into the displacement can, the water level rises. Since the level
was already up to the bottom of the spout, all the displaced water comes out of the spout and is
collected in a measuring cylinder.
The displaced water is the cylinder occupies the same amount of space that the object now does
in the can, which means that their volumes are the same.

34
Time:
The Idea of Time
What is Time?
Time is defined as the interval between two events. Time can also be defined as the dimension
based on which the evolution of any system takes place. It can be measured in terms of seconds,
minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years. The other ways of expressing time are:
 Past: Past is defined as the occurrence of an event before the given point of time
reference.
 Present: Present is defined as the occurrence of an event at that given point of time
reference.
 Future: Future is defined as the occurrence of an event at indefinite time reference.
Units of Time
The SI unit of time is seconds.
Following is the table in which time is expressed in terms seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks,
etc.
1 minute 60 seconds
1 hour 3600 seconds
1 hour 60 minutes
1 day 24 hours
1day 86,400 seconds
7 days 1 week
52 weeks 1 year
12 months 1 year

The idea of time is the thing that our lives wrapped around. We live by keeping time, following
time, and telling time. The idea of time influence every aspect of life, indirectly or directly. We
perceive this time regarding both present and past tense. In physics, time plays a significant role
in measuring motion and forces.
The greatest discovery in the study of time resulted because of Einstein’s theory of relativity
that introduced the concept of slowing of time with motion and gravity. Time is the measure of
events that ordered from the past through the present into the future, furthermore the measure of
durations of events and the intervals between them. Time is often referred to as the fourth
dimension, along with the three spatial dimensions, which are length, breadth and height.
One important point to understand is that time is relative and not absolute. Speed does affect
time, speed close to those of light. All clocks measure time. Be it a pendulum or a wristwatch.
This time becomes clear through motion or change, sunset, sunrise, winter, summer and so on.

35
Time makes the world in constant motion easier to describe. Measurement of time is an
extremely important subject since our world consumed by its significance. This time is measured
by comparing one standard motion like the sun’s movement across the sky against another
motion like that of a car. Clocks are an intermediate for convenience.
Time management is much talked about and applied a concept, prevalent today. It is the act of
planning the amount of time we spend on each activity. Setting goals, prioritizing goals, time
allocation to each task adjusting, reallocation and revisiting to view the results are all steps in
time management. According to scientists, this time, used for time management considered as
something we can travel in it, like up, down, left or right. But when you walk forward, you can
still walk back that is not true for time. So, the idea of time is highly tricky concept that needs to
be studied in-dept.
INSTRUMENT USED FOR MEASURING TIME
 Stop – clock or stop – watch
 Quartz crystal clock
 Atomic clock
 Ticker tape – timer
 Simple pendulum
 Human pulse such as heart – beat.

Density (𝝆)
Unit of Density
Density is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An
object with much matter in a certain volume has a high density. In this article, we will learn
about the definition of density and the units of density.

What Is Density?
The density of material shows the denseness of that material in a specific given area. A
material’s density is defined as its mass per unit volume. Density is essentially a measurement of
how tightly matter is packed together. It is a unique physical property of a particular object. The
principle of density was discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes. It is easy to calculate
density if you know the formula and understand the related units The symbol ρ represents
density or it can also be represented by the letter D.

Density Definition: Density is the measurement of how tightly a material is packed together. It is defined
as the mass per unit volume.

Density Symbol: D or ρ

36
Density Formula: ρ = m/V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass of the object and V is the volume of the
object.

Density Examples
Iron, platinum, and lead are examples of dense materials. Many types of rock and minerals are
examples of dense material. Materials that are dense are most likely to ‘feel’ heavy or hard. The
opposite of dense is sparse and a few examples of sparse material are glass, bamboo, aluminium,
and styrofoam.
In general, liquids are less dense than solids and gases are less dense than liquids. This is due to
the fact that solids have densely packed particles, liquids are materials where particles can slide
around one another, and gases have particles that are free to move all over the place.

How Is Density Calculated?

Mathematically, the density of an object is expressed as follows:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚
𝜌= 𝑣

Where, ρ is the density, m is the mass and V is the volume

Unit of Density

 Though the SI unit of density is kg/m³, for convenience we use g/cm³ for solids, g/ml for
liquids, and g/L for gases.
 Density can be explained as the relationship between the mass of the substance and the
volume it takes up.
 In a qualitative term, it shows how much heavy an object is at constant volume.
 Different substances have different densities, which means for the same volume of
different substances weigh differently.

SI Unit of Density
Each substance has a specific density. Generally, the density of water (which is approximately
about 1 gram/cubic centimetre) is taken as the standard value for calculating the density of
substances. However, the SI unit of Density is measured using kilograms per cubic
metre (kg/m3).

37
Other Density Units
Talking about other density units, metric tons and litres are also used even though they are not
part of the SI. Some other units include:

 gram per millilitre (g/mL)

 metric ton per cubic metre (t/m3)
 kilogram per litre (kg/L)
 megagram (metric ton) per cubic metre (mg/m3)
 gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
 kilogram per cubic decimetre (kg/dm3)
In addition to this, in the cgs system density is measured in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).

Applications of Density in Real Life

Many applications of density are there in our real-life, life a few examples are in pipe design,
shipbuilding, helium balloons, weight distribution in the aeroplane, and the fact that ice floats on
water.

 The knowledge of the densities of two substances helps you in separation techniques. For
example, the separation of oil from water. If there is a leakage of an oil tank in the ocean
then oil drops start to float on the water due to less density than the water.

 Another well-known application of density is determining whether an object will float on

water or not. The floating of ships and diving of submarines are due to their density
difference.

Solved Examples

Question 1:
Take two boxes that have the same volume. Fill the first box with x balls and the second
box with 6x balls. If the mass of each ball is the same, which box would weigh more?
Solution:
The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume.
Here the first box contains x number of balls and the second box contains a 6x number of balls.
Since the number of balls in the second box is 6 times the first box, the second box would weigh
more. This property of matter is called density.

Question 2:
Calculate the density of water if it has a mass of 1160 Kg and a volume of 1 m3?
38
Solution:
Given,
Mass = 1160 Kg
Volume = 1 m3
Density is given by the formula:
Density = Mass/Volume
ρ = 1160/1 = 1160 kg/m3

Questions 3:
If you find a shiny rock, a carbon allotrope with a volume of 0.042 cm3 and a mass of 0.14
g, is it graphite or diamond? The density of graphite is 2.266 g/cm3 and the density of
diamond is 3.51g/cm3.
Solution:
Given,
Volume of the shiny rock =0.042 cm³
Mass of the shiny rock = 0.14 g
Density of graphite = 2.266 g/cm3
Density of diamond = 3.51g/cm3
Use the density equation to solve for m, for the mass of graphite and for the mass of a diamond.
ρ = m/V
m = ρV
m = 2.266 g/cm³ x 0.042 cm³ = 0.0951g for graphite
m = 3.51g/cm3 x 0.042 cm³ = 0.1474 g for diamond
The mass of the shiny rock you found is identical with the mass of diamond.
Measuring Densities:
Liquid:
A convenient volume of the liquid whose density is requires is run off into a clean, dry,
previously weighed beaker using a pipette or burette. The beaker and the liquid are then weighed
and the mass of the liquid is found by subtraction and density calculated from:
𝑀
𝜌=
𝑉

Regular Object:

39
The volume of a regular shaped object e.g. rectangular bar, cylinder or sphere may be calculated
by measurement made by vernier calipers or micrometer screw gauge. The mass of the solid is
found by weighing and density calculated from:
𝑀
𝜌= 𝑉

Irregular shaped objects:

The volume of solids with irregular shapes can be found by immersing the objects in water in a
measuring cylinder or displacement can since it will displace its own volume of water. The mass
is found by weighing and density calculated from:
𝑀
𝜌= 𝑉

Summary:
The density of regular solid:

1. Use a ruler to measure the length (l), width (w) and height (h) of the object.
2. Place the object on the top pan balance and measure its mass.
3. Calculate the volume of the cube using 𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ.
𝑚
4. Use the measurements to calculate the density of the object with 𝜌 = 𝑣 , where m is mass
and V is volume.

The density of irregular solid:

1. Place the object on the top pan balance and measure its mass.
2. Fill a measuring cylinder so that there is enough water to cover the object when it is
placed inside the cylinder. Take the reading of the volume.
3. Carefully lower the object into the cylinder.
4. Take the new reading of the volume. Subtract the original reading to obtain the volume of
the object.
𝑚
5. Use the measurements to calculate the density of the stone 𝜌 = , where m is mass and
𝑣
V is volume.

a. A sample of soil(𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍)𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅

The density of a soil is determined by the following steps.

i).The mass of an empty wooden rectangular box is measured by means of beam balance and the
results is recorded.(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑀1 𝑔)

ii) The rectangular box is filled to the brim with the sample of soil.

iii) The mass of the box containing the sample of soil is measured by means of a beam balance
and the results is recorded.(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑀2 𝑔)

40
iv)The mass of the soil is calculated by subtracting the mass of the empty box from the mass of
box and soil.[𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑀2 − 𝑀1 )].

v) The volume of the soil sample is measured by simply measuring the length, breadth and
height of the box. This is so because the volume of the soil sample is equal to that of the box
since the box is filled to the brim with the soil.

Volume of soil,𝑉 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑥

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀2 −𝑀1
vi)Density of soil= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉

Alternative method for finding the density of a soil

i) The mass of the sample of soil is measured by means of a beam or chemical balance and the
result recorded (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑀 𝑔)

ii) Water is poured into a measuring cylinder to a suitable level or about half full. The initial
level of water is read and recorded (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉1 𝑐𝑚3 )

iii) The sample of soil is gently poured into the measuring cylinder containing water.The level of
the water goes up and this new level is read and recorded(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉2 𝑐𝑚3 )

iv) The volume of the soil is calculated by subtracting the initial level of the water recorded from
the new level of the water.[𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )𝑐𝑚3 ].

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
v)Density of soil= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
2 1

DENSITIES OF
SOME COMMON
SUBTANCES
Substance Density(𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 )
Air 0.0013
Gasoline 0.7
Wood(𝑜𝑎𝑘) 0.85
Water(𝑖𝑐𝑒) 0.92
Water(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) 1.0
Aluminum 2.7
Steel 7.8
Silver 10.5
Lead 11.3
Mercury 13.5
Gold 19.3

41
Density is an important property because it allows you to compare different types of matter.
Let’s see how. Suppose you were asked to determine which is heavier, wood or steel. How
would you go about doing it? Perhaps you would suggest comparing the masses of both on a
balance. You are on the right track, but there is one problem with this solution. What size pieces
of wood and steel would you use? After all, a small piece of steel might have the same mass as a
large piece of wood.
You are probably beginning to realize that in order to compare the masses of two objects, you
need to use an equal volume of each. When you do, you soon discover that a piece of steel has a
greater mass than a piece of wood of the same volume. And that is the important part of the
statement- of the same volume. So for example we can say a cubic centimeter of steel is heavier
than a cubic centimeter of wood. Or steel is denser than wood.
All mater has density. And the density of a specific kind of matter is a property that helps to
identify it and distinguish it from other kinds of matter.
As you recall, because density is equal to mass per unit volume, we can write a formula for
calculating the density of an object:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Density is often expressed in grams per milliliter(𝑔/𝑚𝐿) or grams per cubic centimeter(𝑔/
𝑐𝑚3 ). The density of wood is about 0.8𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 . This means that a piece of wood 1 cubic
centimeter in volume has a mass of about 0.8 gram. The density of steel is 7.8𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 . So a piece
of steel has a mass about 9.75 times that of a piece of wood of the same size.
The density of fresh water is 1 𝑔/𝑚𝐿.Objects with a density less than water float. Object with
greater density sink. Thus wood floats in water because its density is less than the density of
water. What happens to a piece of steel when it is put in water?
If you have ever placed an ice cube in a glass of water, you know that ice floats. So frozen
water(𝑖𝑐𝑒) must be less dense than liquid water. Actually, the density of ice is about 89 percent
that of cold water. What this means is that only about 11 percent of a block of ice stays above the
surface of the water. The rest is below the surface. This fact is what makes ice bergs so
dangerous. For it is only the ‘’tip of the ice berg’’ that is visible.
Activity Thinking
Archimedes and the Crown
The famous Greek mathematician and Scientist Archimedes was once faced with a difficult task.
He had to determine whether the new crown made by a goldsmith for King Hieron of Syracuse
was pure gold or mixture of gold and silver. And he had to accomplish this task without
damaging the crown!
Pretend that you are Archimedes’ assistant and describe an experiment that would help
determine whether the crown is pure gold or mixture of gold and silver. Hint: The concept of
density is useful here.
Examples:

42
1. A piece of iron has a volume of 15𝑐𝑚3 and a mass of 27𝑔.Calculate the density of iron in
a)𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 b)kg/𝑚3
Solution:
a)Mass of iron = 27g, volume of iron = 15c𝑚3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 27𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 15𝑐𝑚3 = 1.8𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

b) The conversion relation is: 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.

1.8 × 1000 = 1800𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Note: To convert density from 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 to 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 multiply by 1000 and to convert from 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
to 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 divide by 1000.
2.Calculate the mass of air in a room of floor dimension 10𝑚 × 12𝑚 and a height of 4m if the
density of the air is 1.26𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
Solution
Density of air =1.26𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Volume of room=𝑙𝑏ℎ = 10𝑚 × 12𝑚 × 4𝑚 = 480𝑚3
Mass of air =?
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.26 × 480 = 605𝑘𝑔
3.If 25𝑐𝑚3 of a quantity of marbles has a mass of 45𝑔, calculate the density of the marble in
𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
Solution
Mass of marble=45g
Volume of marble=25c𝑚3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 45
Density=𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 25 × 1000 = 1.8 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

4. A box with a volume 1000𝑚3 is filled with sand to the brim. If the density of sand is
2𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , calculate the mass of sand in the box.
Solution
Volume of sand= volume of box (𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑚)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
= 2𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 1000𝑚3 = 2000𝑘𝑔

43
5. A solid cylinder of length 12m, has a circular cross-section of radius 3m.If the density of the
body is 180kg𝑚−3.find the mass
Solution
Radius r = 3m : Height h = 12m
Density 𝜌 = 180𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Volume of the cylinder 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝑉 = 3.143 × 32 × 12 = 399.44𝑚3
𝑚
By definition: 𝜌 = 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝑣

Mass 𝑚 = 180 × 399.44 = 71.9 × 103 𝑘𝑔

6.A glass cube of side 5cm and mass 300g has a cavity(ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒) inside it. If the density of glass is
2.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 .
Solution
A cube has all side equal and so the dimension as ff
Length l= 5cm : Height h = 5cm : Breadth b = 5cm
Volume of cube 𝑉1 = 𝑙𝑏ℎ = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125𝑐𝑚3 .
This is the volume of the glass cube without cavity in it.
𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = 𝑣
𝑚 300
Volume of glass cube with cavity in it 𝑉2 = = = 120𝑐𝑚3
𝜌 2.5

Hence volume of cavity: 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 125 − 120 = 5.0𝑐𝑚3

RELATIVE DENSITY
Water is the most common liquid, and it has been found convenient to compare the mass of a
substance with the mass of an equal volume of water. This is called its relative
density(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦). 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 10𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒

E.g. 𝑅𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 10𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

If unit volumes is chosen as the volumes of the substance and water, the masses are numerically
equal to the densities. Thus also:
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

44
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟.
It gives the comparison between the density of the substance to the density of water.
OTHER FORMS OF RELATIVE DENSITY
1. Recalling the expression of relative density of a body in terms of masses:

𝑚
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑚 ; 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑔
𝑤

𝑚𝑔
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑚 ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑤𝑔

𝑊 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑤

𝑊
2. Recalling the just above equation.𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑊
𝑤

If the body were to be immersed in water, it will displace water of equal volume as that of the
body. According to Archimedes’ Principle, the weight of water displaced is equal to the upthrust
in water. That is:
𝑊𝑤 = 𝑈𝑤 ∶ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑊 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤

𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠‼!

45
Determination of the relative density of kerosene using the relative density bottle.
Apparatus: Electronic balance, kerosene, water, relative density bottle, beaker and funnel.
Method:
 Determine the mass of an empty Rd bottle by using an electronic balance and record this
as 𝑚0 .
 Fill the bottle with water and reweigh. Record this mass as 𝑚1 .
 Empty the bottle and dry it.
 Refill the bottle with kerosene and find the mass. Denote this mass as 𝑚2 .
Results
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚0
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚1
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 + 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚0
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚0
From theory
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒
𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚 −𝑚
∴ 𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚2 −𝑚0
1 0

Hole

Stopper
Bottle

Density bottle
Precautions
1. The surface outside of the bottle must be wiped dry.
2. The bottle should not be held in warm hands.

46
Differences between density and relative density
Density Relative density
1.It has a unit 1.It has no unit
2. It is the mass per unit 2. It is the ratio of the
volume of a substance. mass of any volume of a
substance to the mass of
equal volume of water.
3. There may be errors in 3. There is a high degree
volume measurement. of accuracy in all
measurement.
4.It is a measured 4. It is a comparison
quantity between two measured
quantities.

Upthrust forces in fluids

Upthrust is nothing but buoyant force.
When a rigid object is submerged in a fluid(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦), there exist an upward
force on the object that is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object. And
therefore its unit is equal to that of force(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) which is
N.
Hence, Upthrust is an upward force acting on a body that is partial or fully immersed in a
liquid.
When a body is immersed in a liquid:
 It experiences a force acting upward(𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡), which reduces the weight of the body.
 It displaces a volume of a liquid which is equal to the volume of the body.
For example, if a cork is held below the surface of a liquid or pushed into water and then
released it immediately rises to the surface. The cork has thus experienced an upward force or
upthrust due to the liquid. An upthrust is always exerted on any object immersed in a liquid,
whether wholly or partially submerged. Thus ships and submarines would sink if it were not the
upthrust of the sea, and we are able to float on water or swim because of the upthrust on our
bodies by the liquid.
Water and other liquids are example of fluids. A gas is a fluid. Liquids and gases transmit
pressure and both exert pressure, and consequently both exert an upthrust on object inside them.
A floating balloon has an upthrust on it due to the pressure of air, which counterbalances the
weight of the balloon. A liquid exert a greater pressure than a gas because it is denser and hence
it exerts a much greater upthrust.

47
UPTHRUST MEASUREMENT
The upthrust on a small object in liquid can be measured in the laboratory by using a spring-
balance. Let’s have a solid object X, such as a metal, attached to a spring balance. The reading
180N is the weight of X. now X is totally immersed inside a liquid. The spring-balance reading
decreases to 140N.This is the magnitude of the tension (force) in the string supporting X. It is
less than 180N owing to the liquid upthrust exerted on X. From the two readings, the
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 180 − 140 = 40𝑁.
The reading of 140N is been called the ‘apparent weight’ of X in the liquid. It’s actually the
tension in the supporting string. The reading of 180N is the true weight of X. The ‘apparent
loss’ in weight is a measure of the upthrust.
Note: Upthrust depends on the density of the liquid. The bigger the density, the bigger the
upthrust and vice versa. Different liquids have different values of upthrust because they have
different densities.

INVESTIGATION OF UPTHRUST
We can use spring-balance to investigate the factors which affect the upthrust due to a liquid.
Suspend a metal cube(𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛) by means of piece of thread from a spring balance and record its
weight in air. Now immerse the cube completely in water contained in a beaker and again record
the weight. You will notice that the cube apparently weighs less in water than in air, due to the
upthrust.
Repeat the experiment using cubes of the same volume but made of different materials. Notice
that the apparent loss in weight or upthrust is always the same. Repeat the experiment using an
iron cube, but twice the original volume. Notice that the apparent loss in weight or upthrust is
twice the previous value. We conclude that the uptrust is dependent on the volume of the cube
but independent of the material of which the cube is made.
Repeat the experiment with the original iron cube using paraffin or other suitable liquid instead
of water. Observe that the upthrust on the cube is less than in water, but that once again the
upthrust on different cubes of same volume is constant when they are totally immersed in turn in
the paraffin.
Summarizing, from all these experiments it follows that the upthrust depends only on:
 The volume of the solid immersed
 The nature of the liquid in which it is immersed.
NB: In a given liquid the upthrust does not depend on the nature of the solid immersed.

48
MAGNITUDE OF UPTHRUST
We can investigate the magnitude of the upthrust due to a liquid by an extension of the
experiment as follows.
Suspend a large piece of metal A or other convenient substance from a spring balance S by
means of a thread T. When A is hanging freely note the reading on the spring-balance.
Prepare a suitable measuring cylinder C and fill it with water to a convenient graduation such as
50c𝑚3 . Immerse A completely in the water so that it hangs vertically below S and does not touch
the sides of C. Note the new reading on S and the new level of water in C.
Results
The following results were taken in an experiment.
Weight of A in air = 112𝑁
Weight of A in water,= 88𝑁
Original level in C = 50𝑐𝑚3
Final level in C = 74𝑐𝑚3
Calculations
Upthrust on A= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 112 − 88 = 24𝑁
Volume of water displaced by A 74 − 50 = 24𝑐𝑚3
∴ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 24𝑁
Conclusion
The upthrust on an object immersed in water is equal to the weight of water displaced.
Repeat the experiment with other liquids and see if this always holds.

Upthrust= weight of liquid

displaced

49
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
More than two thousand years ago Archimedes stated his famous principle or law concerning the
magnitude of the upthrust on an object in a fluid.
Archimedes’ Principle states that:
The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether partially
or fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces.
OR
It states that when an object is totally or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an
upthrust, which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
So the value of thrust force is given by the Archimedes law which Archimedes of Syracuse of
Greece discovered. When an object is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, the apparent loss of
weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.
Archimedes’ Principle Explanation
Thrust

Gravity
If you look at the figure, the weight due to gravity is oppose by the thrust provided by the fluid.
The object inside the liquid only feels the total force acting on it as the weight. Because the
actual gravitational force is decreased by the liquids upthrust, the object feels as though its
weight is reduced.
Two things we need to note under Archimedes principle and they are as follows:
 The weight of the fluid displaced is equal to the upthrust in fluid.
 The volume of the body immersed in the fluid is equal to the volume of displaced liquid.
The apparent weight is thus given by.
From upthrust= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡(𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟) − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡(𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟) − 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.
∴ 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡.

50
Archimedes principle tells us that the weight loss is equal to the weight of liquid the object
displaces.
Apparent Weight
The weight of a body when measured in air for practical purposes is called true weight or real
weight. However when the body is immersed in fluid, the upthrust in the fluid, decreases the
weight of the body. The new weight in the fluid is called apparent weight.
Mathematically: Apparent weight(𝐴) = Real weight(𝑅) − Upthrust(𝑈)
Archimedes’ Principle Formula
In simple term, the Archimedes law states that the buoyant force on an object is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑉
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 ×
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Where 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑉 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
Archimedes’ Principle Derivation
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑀)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜌) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉)

Mass of displaced liquid(𝑀) = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜌) × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉)

Weight of displace liquid= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Weight= 𝑀 × 𝑔 = 𝜌 × 𝑣 × 𝑔
From Archimedes principle we know that the apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of
water displaced.
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝑔
𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑.
𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑.
𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
The thrust force is also called the buoyant force because it is responsible for objects floating.
This equation is also called the law of buoyancy.

51
Example
1. Calculate the resulting force, if a steel ball of radius 6cm is immersed in water.
Solution
Radius of steel ball = 6𝑐𝑚 = 0.06𝑚.
4
Volume of steel ball,𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
4
= 3 𝜋 × 0.063

𝑉 = 9.05 × 10−4 𝑚3 .
Density of water, 𝜌 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2 .
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑉
= 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 × 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2 × 9.05 × 10−4 𝑚3
𝐹𝑏 = 8.87𝑁

2. Calculate the density of a body, if a floating body is 95% submerged in water. The density of
water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Solution
Density of water 𝜌 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑉
Or
𝜌𝑏 × 𝑔 × 𝑉𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑉
Where, 𝜌, 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 are the density, acceleration due to gravity, and the volume of water
displaced.𝑉𝑏 , 𝜌𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 Are the volume, density and acceleration due to gravity of the body
immersed.
𝑉𝑏 × 𝜌𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑉
𝑉×𝜌
𝜌𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏

Since 95% of the body is immersed.

𝑉 = 0.95𝑉𝑏
0.95𝑉𝑏 𝜌
𝜌𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏

𝜌𝑏 = 0.95 × 1000 = 950𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

52
3. A block of wood of mass 25𝑘𝑔 and volume 3.2 × 10−2 𝑚3 floats in water, what is the volume
of wood above the surface of the water? (𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
Solution block
of wood
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑉𝑤𝑑 × 𝑔
Where 𝑉𝑤𝑑 is the volume of water displaced.
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑉𝑤𝑑
25 = 1000𝑉𝑤𝑑 Water
∴ 𝑉𝑤𝑑 = 25 × 10−3 𝑚3
Volume of wood 𝑉𝑤 = 3.2 × 10−2 𝑚3
Volume of wood above water surface =𝑉𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 − 𝑉𝑤𝑑 = 3.2 × 10−2 − 25 × 10−3
= 7.0 × 10−3 𝑚3

4. A block has a volume of 20𝑐𝑚3 and weighs 0.54𝑁 in air. Calculate the upthrust on the block.
(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.2𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2 ).
Solution
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
= density of the air × volume of liquid displaced × 𝑔
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Volume of air displaced = 20𝑐𝑚3 = 20 × 10−6 𝑚3
Mass of air displaced = 1.2𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 × (20 × 10−6 )𝑚3 = 2.4 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 2.4 × 10−5 × 10 = 2.4 × 10−4 𝑁

5. A piece of brass of density 8.5gc𝑚−3 has a mass of 170g. A piece of wood has mass of 75g,
the wood is attached to the brass and the two together when totally immersed in water have mass
of 125g. What is the density of the wood?
Solution
Density of wood 𝜌𝑤 =?

53
Density of brass 𝜌𝑏 = 8.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
Mass of brass 𝑚𝑏 = 170𝑔
Mass of wood 𝑚𝑤 = 75𝑔
Mass of wood and brass in water(𝑚𝑤 + 𝑚𝑏 ) = 125𝑔
Mass of wood and brass in air (𝑚𝑤 + 𝑚𝑏 ) = 170 + 75 = 245𝑔
Apparent loss in mass = 245𝑔 − 125𝑔 = 120𝑔
Upthrust = apparent loss in weight
𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑉𝑑 × 𝑔
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑑
Where 𝜌𝑤 =density of water
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
120𝑔 = 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 × 𝑉𝑑
𝑉𝑑 = 120𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑤
𝑉𝑤 = 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑚𝑏 170
But 𝑉𝑏 = = = 20𝑐𝑚3
𝜌𝑏 8.5

𝑉𝑤 = 120 − 20 = 100𝑐𝑚−3
𝑀𝑤 75
∴ 𝜌𝑤 = = 100 = 0.75𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
𝑉𝑤

6. An empty relative density bottle has a mass of 20.0𝑔. when it is filled with petrol, its mass is
55.0𝑔. Calculate the mass of the bottle when it is filled with
water.[𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 0.7]
Solution
Let mass of water filling the bottle be 𝑥𝑔
Mass of petrol filling the bottle =55𝑔 − 20𝑔 = 35𝑔.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
R.D of petrol=𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
35.0
0.7 = 𝑥

0.7𝑥 = 35
𝑥 = 50𝑔
∴ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (50 + 20)𝑔 = 70𝑔
54
7. A block of material of volume 20𝑐𝑚3 and density 2.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is suspended from a spring
balance with half the volume of the block immersed in water. What is the reading of the spring
balance?
Solution
Mass of the block = its volume × 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 20 × 2.5 = 50𝑔
Upthrust = weight of water displaced= loss in weight in water
= 10c𝑚3 × 1 = 10𝑔
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 50𝑔 − 10𝑔 = 40𝑔

8. A piece of cork of density 0.25 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 floats in a liquid of density

1.25 × 10𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .What fraction of the volume of the cork will be immersed?
Solution
Let total volume of cork be 𝑉𝑇 𝑚3
Let volume of the cork submerged be 𝑉𝑠 𝑚3
Mass of cork = 0.25 × 103 × 𝑉𝑇
Weight of the floating cork = weight of liquid displaced.
i.e.0.25 × 103 × 𝑉𝑇 = 1.25 × 103 × 𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑇 0.25×103 1
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 = = 1.25×103 = 5
𝑉𝑆

EASY QUESTIONS
1. A metal weighs 20N in air and 12N in water. Calculate the relative density of the mater.
Solution
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅. 𝑑 = 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
20 20
𝑅. 𝑑 = 20−12 = = 2.5
8

2. An object weighs 10.0N in air and 7.0N when totally immersed in water. Calculate the relative
density of the object.
Solution

55
 10 10
𝑹. 𝒅 = 10−7 = = 3.3
3

3.A block weighs 15N in air and 12N when immersed in water. The specific gravity of the block
is.
Solution
15
𝑅. 𝐷 = 15−12 = 5

Try Work
1. A solid weighs 0.09N in air and 0.06N in water. What is the relative density of the solid?
2. A solid is first weighed in air and it weight is denoted by W. It is then weighed in water and its
weight is denoted by 𝑊1 . Find the relative density of the solid in terms of 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊1 .
Solved example
1. An object weighs 10N in air, 7N when totally immersed in water and 7.6N when totally
immersed in alcohol. Calculated the relative density of alcohol.
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅. 𝑑 = 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
10−7.6
= 10−7
2.4
= 0.8
3

2. A metal weighs 20N in air, 12N in water and 14N in kerosene, Calculate the relative density
of
a) The metal b) kerosene
Solution
𝟐𝟎 20
a)𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐𝟎−𝟏𝟐 = = 2.5
8
20−14 6
b)𝑅. 𝐷 = 20−12 = 8 = 0.75

3. A solid has a mass of 400g in air and when partly immersed in a certain liquid it has a mass of
320g. Given that the relative density of the liquid is 0.80.Calculate the volume of the solid
immersed in the liquid.
Solution
Mass of solid in air = 400𝑔
Mass of solid in liquid=320𝑔
Relative density of liquid = 0.80
56
Weight of solid = Weight of liquid displaced
𝑀×𝑔 = 𝜌×𝑉×𝑔
𝑀 = 𝜌×𝑉
Mass (M) = 400g – 320g = 80𝑔
80 = 𝑉 × 𝜌
80
𝑉= 𝜌

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑅. 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
0.80 = 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3

Density of liquid = 0.80𝑔𝑐𝑚−3

80
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 0.80 = 100𝑐𝑚3

Try Work
4 A solid has a mass of 200g in air and when partly immersed in a certain liquid it has a mass of
160g. Given that the relative density of the liquid is 0.80.Calculate the volume of the solid
immersed in the liquid. Answer:[50𝑐𝑚3 ]

ASSIGNMENT
1.A relative density bottle of mass 25.0𝑔 has a capacity of 50c𝑚3 .The bottle is completely filled
with methylated spirit, and its mass is 65.0𝑔.The bottle is emptied and some salt is then put into
the empty bottle and then weighed, the mass now is 50.0𝑔.Methylated spirit is now added until
the bottle is completely filled and the total mass now becomes 80.0𝑔.From the data given
calculate the density of the salt.[2.0𝑔𝑐𝑚3 ]

57
Solved Example
A metal block weighs 1.8𝑁 in air and 1.6𝑁 in water. What will be its weight in a liquid of
relative density 0.65?
Solution
Weight in air 𝑊𝑎 = 1.8𝑁
Weight in water 𝑊𝑤 = 1.6𝑁
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.65
𝑊 −𝑊
𝑅. 𝑑 = 𝑊𝑎−𝑊 𝑙
𝑎 𝑤

1.8−𝑊
0.65 = 1.8−1.6𝑙

𝑊𝑙 = 1.67𝑁

58
FLOTATION
If you had lived a few hundred years ago and said you were going to make an iron ship, people
would have thought you were crazy. They believed that a ship made of iron would sink, and that
a ship should be made of a material that itself floats, such as wood.
Today it is easy to see how a ship made of iron can float. Consider a solid 1 −
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛.
Iron is nearly eight times as dense as water, so when it is submerged, it will displace only
1
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟. this is not enough to keep it from sinking. Suppose we reshape the same iron
8
block into a bowl shape, as shown in the diagram below. It still weighs 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛. If you lower the
bowl into a body of water, it displaces a greater volume of water than before. The deeper the
bowl is immersed at the surface, the more water is displaced and the greater is the buoyant force
exerted on the bowl. When the weight of the displaced water equals the weight of the bowl, it
will sink no further. It will float. This is because the buoyant force now equals the weight of the
bowl.
BUOYANT FORCE

WEIGHT OF IRON

A solid iron block sinks, while the same block shaped to occupy at least 8 times as much volume
floats.

The concept of Flotation.

The concept of flotation is one of the important properties of fluids which is based on buoyancy
and thrust.
The phenomenon of floating totally depends on the various properties of fluids and objects.
What is floatation?
The tendency of an object to rise up to the upper levels of the fluid or to float on the fluid surface
is known as floatation. Sinking is just the opposite process of floatation which means tendency of
an object to go deep down to the lower levels of the fluid.
The phenomenon of floatation totally depends on the density of the object place in the fluid and
the density of the fluid in which it is placed. A ship can only float or sail on the sea if its density
is lesser than that of the seawater.

59
 𝑈

𝑊=𝑈
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

A body floats in liquid when upthrust balances the weight of the body (𝑖. 𝑒 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑈). Also
weight of fluid displacement = 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 and therefore a body will float when the weight of
fluid displaced is equal to weight of the body.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑑
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑑 𝑔
Where 𝜌𝑙 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑.
𝑽𝒅 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅.

Law of Floatation
The law of flotation states that floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it
floats.
Explanation
The fluid in which a body floats should displace the fluid of its own weight to float. For example
If a brick of wood weighing 300𝑘𝑔(3000𝑁) floats in water, then this means that it displaces
300𝑘𝑔(3000𝑁) of water. However, in other fluids of different properties. If the same wood
brick is placed, then it will only float if it is able to displace the same 300kg of fluid.
Conditions for an object to float
 The fluid in which the object has to float should have a density more than that of the
average density of the floating object.
 The total weight of the object must be equal to the upthrust force of the fluid on the
object.
 To displace a huge amount of fluid, the volume of the object submerged must be huge
enough.
Relationship between Real weight of a floating Body and Upthrust
Apparent loss in weight= 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

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Where apparent loss in weight is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced, which is the upthrust.
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 + 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
But, the apparent weight of an object becomes zero when it floats. Hence
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 0.
Now,
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 + 0
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡.
The relationship between real weight and upthrust of floating object shows that the real weight is
equal to the upthrust and the floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats.
Because the upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Therefore to make an object
float, it is important that the real weight be equal to upthrust.

Solved Example
A ship of mass 1200 tonnes floats in seawater. What volume of sea-water does it displace? If the
ship enters fresh water, what mass of cargo must be unloaded so that the same volume of water is
displaced as before?
(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , 𝑅. 𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.03,1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 = 1000𝑘𝑔)
Solution
The ship displaces a weight of sea-water equal to its own weight and therefore mass of sea-water
displaced is equal to mass of ship.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 1200𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠
= 1200 × 1000
= 1200000𝑘𝑔
What volume of sea-water does it displace?
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎−𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑅. 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎−𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
1.03 = 1000

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.03 × 1000 = 1030𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎−𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 1200000
Volume of sea-water displace = = = 1165𝑚3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎−𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1030

What mass of cargo must be uploaded so that the same volume of water is displace as before?
Volume of fresh water displaced = 1165𝑚3
Mass of fresh water displace = density of fresh water × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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 = 1165𝑚3 × 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
= 1165000𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 1200000 − 1165000
= 35000𝑘𝑔
= 35 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠

The Effect of Density on Submerged Objects

You have learned that the buoyant force that acts on a submerged object depends on the volume
of the object. Small object displace small amounts of water and are acted on by small buoyant
forces. Large objects displace large amounts of water and are acted on by larger buoyant forces.
It is the volume of the submerged object−𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 −that determines buoyant force.
Thus far, the weight of the submerged object has not been taken into account. Now we will
consider its role.
Whether an object will sink or float in a liquid has to do with how great the buoyant force is
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡. Careful thought will show that if the buoyant force is
exactly equal to the weight of a completely submerged object, then the weight of the object must
be the same as the weight of the water displaced. Since the volume of the object and of the
displaced water are the same, the density of the object must equal the density of water.
This is true for a fish, which has a density equal to the density of water. The fish is ′′𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒′′
with the water−it doesn’t sink and it doesn’t float. If the fish were somehow bloated up, it would
be less dense than water and it would float to the top. If the fish swallowed a stone and became
denser than water, it would sink to the bottom.
This can be summed up in three simple rules.
 If an object is denser than the fluid in which it is immersed, it will sink.
 If an object is less dense than the fluid in which it is immersed, it will float.
 If an object has a density equal to the density of the fluid in which it is immersed, it will
neither sink nor float.

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In the figure above, the wood floats because it is less dense than water. The rock sinks because it
is denser than water. The fish does neither because it has the same density as water.
From these rules, what can you say about people who, try as they may, cannot float? They’re
simply too dense! To float more easily, you must reduce your density .Since weight density is
weight divided by volume, you must either reduce your weight or increase your volume. The
purpose of a life jacket is to increase volume while correspondingly adding very little to your
weight.
The density of a submarine is controlled by taking water into and out of its ballast tanks. In this
way the weight of the submarine can be varied to achieve the desired density. A fish regulates its
density by expanding and contracting an air sac that changes its volume. The fish can move
upward by increasing its volume (𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) and downward by contracting
its volume(𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦). the overall density of a crocodile is increased when it
swallows stones. From 4 𝑡𝑜 5𝑘𝑔 of stones have been found lodged in the front part of the
stomach in large crocodiles. When its density is increased, the crocodile can swim lower in the
water, thus exposing less of itself to its prey.

Application of Flotation
Floatation is defined as the phenomenon which relates to the buoyancy of on object. This works
on the principle is an object is floating on the surface of liquid then it means the weight of
displaced liquid is equal to the weight of object. Floatation can be used in following ways:
 Principle of floatation is used in making ships, submarines and boats.
 It is used in making hot air balloons and air ships.
 Ice bergs floats on the surface of water due to floatation phenomenon.
1. Balloon:
A balloon filled with hydrogen or helium will rise and float in air. The density of air is much
greater than that of hydrogen; it is about 14 times greater. The average density of the balloon
containing hydrogen is less than the density of the air. The weight of air, which will be displaced
by the balloon with hydrogen, is greater than that of the balloon. In accordance with Archimedes
principle the balloon is acted upon by a resultant upward force equal to the difference between
the weight of the balloon and the weight of air displaced. The resultant upward force provides
the lifting power of the balloon.
2. Boats and Ships are designed to have a hollow cavity. This hollow cavity contains air. This
makes the average density of the boat to be less than that of water. The hollow cavity reduces the
weight of the boat or ship for the volume of water it can displace. The weight of the volume of
water displaced balances with the weight of boat or ship and hence the ship or boat floats in
water.

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3. Submarine: Submarines can move under water and can rise to the surface of water and float
like a ship. The buoyancy of a submarine depends on the amount of water in its ballast tanks.
The ballast tanks are two tanks on the sides of the submarine, which are filled with water. When
the tanks are filled with water, the average density of the submarine becomes greater than that of
water and this makes the submarine dive in water. For the submarine to move on the surface of
water, water is ejected from the tanks by means of compressed air.
4. Hydrometer: A hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the density or relative density of a
liquid. It is used, for example, to measure the density of acid in car battery because this is related
to the battery condition, the strength of spirits, or degree of richness of milk. It sinks lower in
liquid of low density and floats higher in liquids of high density.

Stem For figure 1 let

The length of the rod submerged in water=
𝑙𝑤
The cross-sectional area= 𝐴𝑤
Weight of hydrometer= 𝑊ℎ
Lead
Volume of water displace 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑙𝑤 × 𝐴𝑤
shot
Weight of displaced water= 𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤
= 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑙𝑤 × 𝐴𝑤 …….(1)
Water of known density 1

From diagram 2

Liquid of unknown density 2. Length of the submerged in liquid= 𝑙1

Cross-sectional area= 𝐴𝑙
Volume of liquid displaced𝑉𝑙 = 𝐴𝑙 × 𝑙1
Weight of same hydrometer= 𝑊ℎ
Weight of displaced liquid= 𝜌𝑙 × 𝑉𝑙
= 𝜌𝑙 × 𝐴𝑙 × 𝑙1……… (2)

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Since the hydrometer displaces its own Example
weight
A simple hydrometer of mass 50g floats in a
Equation 1 = Equation 2 liquid of relative density 1.4. Calculate the
volume of liquid displaced by the
𝜌𝑤 × 𝑙𝑤 × 𝐴𝑤 =𝜌𝑙 × 𝐴𝑙 × 𝑙1 hydrometer.(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑔𝑐𝑚3 )
Solution
𝜌𝑙 𝑙𝑤 ×𝐴𝑤
= 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌𝑤 𝑙𝑙 ×𝐴𝑙
𝑅𝑑 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
But 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑙 (𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝜌𝑙 𝑙𝑤
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= = 𝑅𝑑 1.4 =
𝜌𝑤 𝑙𝑙 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 1.4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑,𝑚
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑙 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑,𝑉𝑙
𝑙

𝑚𝑙
𝑉𝑙 = 𝜌𝑙
50𝑔
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 1.4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 = 35.71𝑐𝑚3

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