Q What is meant by the term °doping' of an intrinsic

semiconductor? How does it affect the conductivity of a

semiconductor?
Doping of an intrinsic semiconductor refers to the process of deliberately adding a small
amount of impurity atoms to a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor to enhance its electrical
conductivity.

There are two types of doping:

1. N-type Doping: Adding pentavalent impurities (e.g., phosphorus, arsenic) to silicon

or germanium increases the number of free electrons, making electrons the majority
charge carriers.
2. P-type Doping: Adding trivalent impurities (e.g., boron, gallium) creates holes
(absence of electrons), making holes the majority of charge carriers.

Doping transforms the intrinsic semiconductor into an extrinsic semiconductor, improving its
performance in electronic devices like diodes and transistors.

Doping significantly increases the conductivity of a semiconductor by introducing free

charge carriers (electrons or holes), which enhance its ability to conduct electricity.

Effect on Conductivity:

1. N-type Semiconductor (Donor Doping)

o When pentavalent impurities (e.g., phosphorus, arsenic) are added, they
contribute extra free electrons.
o These electrons become the majority charge carriers, increasing conductivity.
2. P-type Semiconductor (Acceptor Doping)
o When trivalent impurities (e.g., boron, gallium) are added, they create holes
(missing electrons).
o These holes act as positive charge carriers, improving conductivity.

Q Why does a pure semiconductor behave like an

insulator at absolute zero temperature?
A pure (intrinsic) semiconductor behaves like an insulator at absolute zero temperature (0
K) because no free charge carriers are available for conduction.

o In a semiconductor, electrical conductivity occurs due to the movement of

electrons and holes.
o At room temperature, thermal energy excites some electrons from the valence
band to the conduction band, creating free charge carriers.
o At 0 K, there is no thermal energy to excite electrons.
o All electrons remain bound in the valence band, and the conduction band is
empty.
 o Since electrical conduction requires free charge carriers, the semiconductor
behaves like an insulator at this temperature.
o Free electrons exist even at 0 K in metals, so they remain conductive.
o In semiconductors, charge carriers depend on thermal excitation, which is
absent at absolute zero.

Thus, at 0 K, an intrinsic semiconductor has zero electrical conductivity, making it an

insulator.

Q Explain the formation of the 'potential barrier' and

'depletion region' for a p-n junction.
Formation of Potential Barrier and Depletion Region in a P-N Junction

When a p-type and n-type semiconductor are joined to form a p-n junction, two key regions
are created:

1. Formation of the Depletion Region

 Diffusion of Charge Carriers:

o In the p-type region, holes are the majority charge carriers, while in the n-type
region, electrons dominate.
o Due to concentration differences, electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-
region, and holes from the p-region diffuse into the n-region.
o This results in recombination, where free electrons fill holes, eliminating charge
carriers near the junction.

 Formation of the Depletion Layer:

o The region near the junction becomes depleted of free charge carriers, forming the
depletion region (a region with immobile, oppositely charged ions).
o The depletion region contains negatively charged acceptor ions on the p-side and
positively charged donor ions on the n-side.

2. Formation of the Potential Barrier

 As electrons leave the n-region, it become positively charged, and as holes leave the p-
region, it become negatively charged.
 This creates an electric field across the depletion region, which opposes further movement
of charge carriers.
 The voltage required to overcome this field and allow current flow is called the potential
barrier or built-in potential (V₀).

Summary:

 The depletion region is a charge-free zone with immobile ions.

 The potential barrier prevents further diffusion of charge carriers unless an external voltage
is applied (forward bias reduces it, reverse bias increases it).

This process is crucial for the working of diodes and other semiconductor devices.
Q Define the dynamic resistance' of a p-n junction
diode.
Dynamic Resistance of a P-N Junction Diode

Dynamic resistance (rd) of a p-n junction diode is the small-signal resistance offered by the
diode when an AC or small change in voltage is applied. It is defined as the ratio of a small
change in voltage (ΔV) to the corresponding small change in current (ΔI) in the forward-
biased region.

Mathematical Expression:

rd= ΔV/ΔI

It is the slope of the V-I curve of the diode at a particular operating point.

Key Points:

 Dynamic resistance is low in the forward bias (due to exponential increase in current).
 In reverse bias, the current is nearly constant (very small leakage current), so dynamic
resistance is very high.
 It is different from static resistance, which is calculated as R=V/I.

Application: Used in AC analysis of diode circuits, especially in small-signal applications.

LONG

Q1 Energy bands are ranges of energy that electrons in a solid can occupy. They are formed
due to the interaction of atomic orbitals when a large number of atoms come together to form
a solid.

Formation of Energy Bands:

 In isolated atoms, electrons occupy discrete energy levels.

 When many atoms are brought close together (as in solids), their energy levels split and
form continuous bands due to quantum mechanical interactions.
 The two most important energy bands are:
1. Valence Band (VB): The highest energy band that is completely or partially filled
with electrons at absolute zero temperature.
2. Conduction Band (CB): The next higher energy band that is partially filled or empty,
allowing electron movement (conductivity).
 The energy gap between these two bands is called the band gap (Eg), which determines
electrical conductivity.

Distinction Between Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors Based on

Energy Bands

Property Conductors (Metals) Insulators Semiconductors

Energy Band Overlapping conduction Large band gap (~5 eV or

Small band gap (~0.1–2 eV).
Diagram and valence bands. more).

Eg=0 (CB and VB Eg>5eV (no electron Eg≈1eV (Si = 1.1 eV, Ge = 0.7
Band Gap (Eg)
overlap). movement). eV).

Electrical Very high (free Very low (no free Moderate (increases with
Conductivity electrons available). electrons at room temp.). temperature).

No electrons in CB
Electrons freely move in Some electrons thermally
Electron Flow (requires high energy to
CB. excited to CB.
jump).

Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge),

Examples Glass, Rubber, Diamond.
Gold (Au), Iron (Fe). Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
Q3 Formation of a P-Type Semiconductor

A p-type semiconductor is formed by doping a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor like silicon

(Si) or germanium (Ge) with a trivalent impurity (an element with three valence electrons),
such as boron (B), gallium (Ga), indium (In), or aluminum (Al).

Process of P-Type Formation:

1. Doping: A small amount of a trivalent element is added to the pure semiconductor.

2. Hole Creation: The trivalent atoms bond with the surrounding silicon atoms but lack
one electron to complete the four covalent bonds.
3. Acceptors: This missing electron creates a hole, which acts as a positive charge
carrier and can attract free electrons from neighboring atoms.
4. Majority and Minority Carriers:
o Holes are the majority charge carriers.
o Electrons are the minority charge carriers.

Energy Band Diagram of a P-Type Semiconductor

 In a p-type semiconductor, an acceptor energy level is created just above the

valence band due to doping.
 The band gap (Eg) remains the same as in an intrinsic semiconductor.
 At room temperature, some electrons jump from the valence band to fill the acceptor
level, leaving behind holes, which move and contribute to conduction.

Here’s a simple energy band diagram:

Conduction Band (CB)

----------------------

(Few electrons)

Energy Gap (Eg)

---------------------- ← Acceptor Energy Level (close to VB)

Valence Band (VB)

(Holes as majority carriers)

Q4 Formation of an N-Type Semiconductor

An n-type semiconductor is formed by doping a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor like

silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) with a pentavalent impurity (an element with five valence
electrons), such as phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), or bismuth (Bi).

Process of N-Type Formation:

1. Doping: A small amount of a pentavalent element is added to the pure semiconductor.

2. Free Electron Generation: The pentavalent atoms bond with the surrounding silicon
atoms, but they have one extra electron left after forming four covalent bonds.
3. Donors: This extra electron is loosely bound and can easily move, contributing to
electrical conduction.
4. Majority and Minority Carriers:
o Electrons are the majority charge carriers.
o Holes are the minority charge carriers.

Energy Band Diagram of an N-Type Semiconductor

 In an n-type semiconductor, a donor energy level is created just below the

conduction band due to doping.
 The band gap (Eg) remains the same as in an intrinsic semiconductor.
 At room temperature, electrons from the donor level easily jump to the conduction
band, increasing conductivity.

Here’s a simple energy band diagram:

Conduction Band (CB)

----------------------

(Electrons as majority carriers)

Energy Gap (Eg)

---------------------- ← Donor Energy Level (close to CB)

Valence Band (VB)

 (Few holes)

Q5 In a semiconductor, the current is due to:

1. Electron Current (Ie): Movement of free electrons in the conduction band.

2. Hole Current (Ih): Movement of holes in the valence band.

The total current III is the sum of both contributions:

I=Ie+Ih

When an external electric field (E) is applied, charge carriers experience a force and start drifting
with an average velocity called drift velocity (vd), given by:

vd=μE

where is the mobility of the charge carrier.

 Electron drift velocity: ve=μeE

 Hole drift velocity: vh=μhE

where μe and μh are the mobilities of electrons and holes, respectively.

Current density is given by:

J=nqvd

Where

 n = number of charge carriers per unit volume (carrier concentration),

 q = charge of an electron (q=1.6×10^−19C).