Earthquakes

▪ Earthquakes are one of the most devastating natural hazards that cause great loss
of life and livelihood.

▪ On average, 10,000 people die each year due to earthquakes, while annual
economic losses are in the billions of dollars and often constitute a large
percentage of the gross national product of the country affected.

▪ Over the past few decades earthquake engineering has developed as a branch of
engineering concerned with the estimation of earthquake consequences and the
mitigation of these consequences.

▪ It has become an interdisciplinary subject involving seismologists, structural and

geotechnical engineers, architects, urban planners, information technologists and
social scientists.
 Nature of Earthquakes
Causes of earthquakes
➢ Plate tectonics theory
➢ Faulting
➢ Seismic waves

Measuring earthquakes
➢ Intensity
➢ Magnitude
➢ Intensity-magnitude relationships

Source-to-Site-Effects
➢ Directional Effects
➢ Site Effects
➢ Dispersion and Incoherence

Effects of earthquakes
➢ Damage to buildings and lifelines
➢ Effects on the ground
➢ Human and financial losses
 Plate Tectonics Theory

► Earthquake causes

▪ An earthquake is manifested as ground shaking caused by the sudden release of

energy in the Earth’s crust.

▪ Earthquake occurrence may be explained by the theory of large-scale tectonic

processes referred to as ‘plate tectonics’.

▪ Intense seismic activity occurs predominantly on known plate boundaries.

Tectonic plates (left) and worldwide earthquake distribution (right)

 Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)

► Plate tectonics
▪ Plates are large and stable rigid rock slabs with a thickness of about 100 km
forming the crust or lithosphere and part of the upper mantle of the Earth.

▪ Large tectonic forces take place at the plate edges due to the relative movement of
the lithosphere-asthenosphere complex.

Cross-section of the Earth with the main type plate boundaries

 Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)

► The principal types of plate boundaries

▪ Divergent or rift zones: plates separate themselves from one another and either an
effusion of magma occurs or the lithosphere diverges from the interior of the Earth.

▪ Convergent or subduction zones: adjacent plates converge and collide. A

subduction process carries the slab-like plate, known as the ‘under-thrusting plate’
into a dipping zone.

▪ Transform faults or transcurrent horizontal slip: two plates glide past one another
but without creating new lithosphere or subducting old lithosphere.
 Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
► Classification of tectonic earthquakes
▪ Inter-plate earthquakes
• Plate boundary earthquakes which
contribute 95% of world-wide seismic
energy release.
▪ Intra-plate earthquakes
• The genesis of this seismic activity is
attributed either to the geological
structural complexity of the lithosphere
or anomalies in its temperature and
strength.
• Intra-plate earthquakes generally fall in
two groups:
- Plate boundary-related earthquakes;
- Mid-plate earthquakes.
Earthquake Slip rate (v) Recurrence time New Madrid zone in US
(type) (mm/year) (year) Example for Intra-plate EQ
Inter-plate v > 10 ~ 100
Intra-plate (plate
0.1 ≤ v ≤ 10 102 ~ 104
boundary related)
Intra-plate (mid-plate) v < 0.1 > 104
 Faulting
► Faults
▪ When two ground masses move with respect to one another, elastic strain energy
due to tectonic processes is stored and then released through the rupture of the
interface zone. The distorted blocks snap back towards equilibrium and
earthquake ground shaking is produced. This process is referred to as ‘elastic
rebound’. The resulting fracture in the Earth’s crust is termed a ‘fault’.
 Faulting (continued)
► Parameters used to describe fault dimensions and motion
▪ Azimuth (Φ): the angle between the trace of the fault;

▪ Dip (δ): the angle between the fault and the horizontal plane;

▪ Slip or rake (λ): the angle between the direction of relative displacement and the
horizontal direction;

▪ Relative displacement (Δu): the distance travelled by a point on either side of the
fault plane;
▪ Area (S): surface area of the highly stressed region within the fault plane.

Z (Zenith)

X (North) Fault plane

Fault trace
Horizontal plane

Fault trace

Dip ()
180°-

u
 Foot wall
Hanging wall
Fault plane S

Parameters used to describe fault dimension and motion

 Faulting (continued)
► Fundamental fault mechanisms

▪ Dip-slip faults: one block moves vertically with respect to the other.

▪ Strike-slip faults: the adjacent blocks move horizontally past one other.

Hanging wall Footwall Footwall

Hanging wall

Fundamental fault mechanisms

 Faulting (continued)
► Fault mechanisms Fault mechanisms as a function of the rake (λ)
North reverse fault reverse fault
right slip left slip
azimuth (strike, Φ) reverse
rake (λ)
foot wall 90˚

+
0°
dip (δ) +180° 180˚ 0˚
right -180˚ left
-180°
hanging wall
-90˚

normal
normal fault normal fault
right slip left slip

Fault plane
dip (δ)
Fault trace

0˚< δ <90˚
(oblique fault)
pure reverse fault (λ= 90˚) pure normal fault (λ= -90˚)
Dip ()

Foot wall
δ = 90˚
Hanging wall (vertical fault) Pure strike slip Pure strike slip down slip
(left lateral, λ=0˚) (right lateral, λ=180˚) (λ= ±90˚)
 Faulting (continued)
► Source parameters
▪ The ‘focus’ or ‘hypocentre’ of an earthquake is the point under the surface where
the rupture is said to have originated. The projection of the focus on the surface is
termed ‘epicentre’.

▪ Earthquake foci are located by geographical coordinates, namely latitude and

longitude, the focal depth and the origin or occurrence time.
▪ Many shallow earthquakes have focal
depths in the range of 5-15 km, while
intermediate events have foci at
about 20-50 km and deep
earthquakes occur at 300-700 km
under the surface. The three types
are also referred to as shallow,
intermediate and deep focus,
respectively.

▪ The source is not a single point,

hence the ‘distance from the source’
Definition of source parameters required for engineering seismology
applications is ill-defined.
 • Frequency is 1/period. It has units of s-1.
• Amplitude is a measure of the height of the wave. It h
Seismic Waves
▪ Earthquake shaking is generated
Seismic Waves by two
types of elastic seismic waves: body and
surface waves.
Terminology
• Wavelength is a measure of the spatial width of a wave. It has units of length (m).
► Body waves
• Period is a measure of the duration of a vibration. Period has units of time (s).
▪ • Frequency
They include longitudinal is 1/period.waves
or primary It has units of s-1.
(also known as ‘P-waves’) and
• Amplitude is atransverse
measure of theor height of the wave. It has units of displacement (m).
secondary waves (also referred to as ‘S-
waves’).
note: velocity of the wave = wavelength / period

▪ Body waves attenuate in inverse proportion

to the distance x.

► Surface waves
▪ Surface waves include Love (indicated as
‘L- or LQ-waves’) and Rayleigh (indicated as
Seismic Waves
‘R- or LR-waves’) waves.
Terminology
note: velocity of the wave = wavelength / period
▪ Surface waves attenuate in inverse • Wavelength is a measure of the spatial width of a wave. It has units of length (m).
proportion to the square root of the • Period is a measure of the duration of a vibration. Period has units of time (s).
• Frequency is 1/period. It has units of s-1.
distance.
• Amplitude is a measure of the height of the wave. It has units of displacement (m).
 Seismic Waves
Body Waves Surface Waves
Body waves attenuate in inverse proportion to Surface waves attenuate in inverse proportion to the
the distance x. square root of the distance.
➢ Love (L- or LQ-) waves
➢ Primary-waves (longitudinal) • LQ-waves are generated by constructive
• P-waves cause alternate compression and interference of SH body waves.
dilation in the rock. • LQ-waves have large amplitudes and long
• Small amplitudes and short periods. periods.
• For a layered soil, LQ-wave velocity vLQ is
• P-waves travel faster, at speeds between generally:
1.5 and 8 km/sec in the Earth’s crust. v S1  vLQ  v S2
with vS1 and vS2 the velocities of S-waves in
➢ Secondary-waves (transverse) the surface and deeper layers, respectively.
• S-wave propagation causes vertical ➢Rayleigh (R- or LR-) waves
motion and horizontal side-to-side motion. • LR-waves are caused by constructive
interference of body waves, such as P and SV.
• Large amplitudes and long periods.
• LR-waves exhibit very large amplitude and
• S-waves, are slower, usually have 50% to regular wave-forms
60% of the speed of P-waves • LR-waves are slower than S-waves; it may be
assumed that:
v LR  0.92 v S

P-waves S-waves Love Rayleigh Waves

waves
 Seismic Waves (continued)
▪ The difference in velocities of P- and S- waves may be employed to locate the
earthquake origin.

▪ Assuming homogenous soil profiles between earthquake foci and observation sites,
the focal distance Δx is linearly dependent on the time-lag Δt between the arrival of
P- and S-waves.
Depth
Layer (type)
(km)
vp (km/s) vs (km/s) v P vS
Crust 10 - 30 6.57 3.82 x = t (1.1 − a)
40 8.12 4.42 v P − vS
Upper Mantle 220 8.06 4.35
400 9.13 5.22 18.0
670 10.75 5.95 16.0 Proposed step-function
Lower Mantle 1200 11.78 6.52

Ratios (vP∙vS) / (vP-vS)

14.0
2885 13.72 7.26 12.0
2890 8.06 0.00 10.0
Outer Core 3800 9.31 0.00 8.0
5150 10.36 0.00 6.0
Omori's formula
5155 11.03 3.50 4.0
Inner Core
6371 11.26 3.67 2.0
0.0
▪ For a quick evaluation, Omori’s formula 10-30 40 220 400 670 1200 2885
(Kanai, 1983) may also be used (Δx in Crust Upper Mantle Lower Mantle

km, Δt in seconds) Depth of Earth's Layers (in km)

x  7.42 t (1.1 − b)
 Seismic Waves (continued)

▪ The procedure to locate an earthquake epicentre and origin time is as follows:

a) Obtain seismogram records for a given observation site;

b) Select the arrival time of the body waves on the record traces;

c) Compute the time delay Δt in the arrival of P- and S-waves;

d) Subtract the travel time Δt from the arrival time at the observation site to derive
the origin time;

e) Use eqns. (1.1) to evaluate the distance Δx between the seismic station and the
epicentre;

f) Draw a circle on a map around the station location (or centre) with a radius
equal to Δx;

g) Repeat steps (a) to (f) for a second seismic station;

h) Repeat steps (a) to (f) for a third seismic station.

 Seismic Waves (continued)

▪ Body waves are reflected and refracted at interfaces between different layers of
rock according to Snell’s law of refraction from elementary optics.

▪ When reflection and refraction occur part of the energy of one type is transformed
into the other. Regardless of whether the incident wave is P or S, the reflected and
refracted waves, also termed ‘multiple phase waves’, each consist of P- and S-
waves. Their name indicates the travel path and mode of propagation. For example,
SP starts as S and then continues as P.

▪ Multiple phase waves do not possess significant damage potential. However, when
P- and S-waves reach the ground surface they are reflected back. Such reflection
may lead to significant local amplification of the shaking at the surface.

▪ It has been shown that seismic waves are influenced by soil conditions and local
topography.
 Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquake size can be Ex: Modified Mercalli (MM): 12-level scale used
expressed in several ways: in North American and several other countries

► Intensity MODIFIED
MERCALLI I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

▪ Qualitative (non-
instrumental)
MERCALLI
measurement. CANCANI
SEIBERG
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

▪ Subjective damage
evaluation based on
description of earthquake MEDVEDEV
SPONHEUER I II III IV V VI VII VII IX X XI XII
KARNIK
effects.

EUROPEAN
MACROSEISMIC I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
► Magnitude
▪ Quantitative (instrumental)
measurement. JAPANESE
METEOROLOGICAL I II III IV V VI VII

▪ Objective measure of AGENCY

earthquake size or fault

dimensions. Comparison and equivalence between
seismic intensity scales
 Intensity (continued)
▪ Intensity scales are used to plot contour lines of equal intensity or ‘isoseismals’.

▪ The isoseismal map of the October 17, 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California is
shown below. It locates the epicentre (marked as a star) and provides Modified
Modified Mercalli Scale (MMS)
Mercalli (MM) intensities between isoseismals (Roman numerals), and MM intensities
at specific cities (Arabic numerals).

Modified Mercalli Scale (MMS)

 Intensity (continued)

▪ Structures in the immediate vicinity of earthquake sources experience very high

ground accelerations but may sustain little or no damage, depending on their periods
of vibration. On the other hand, intensity is a measure of the perceptibility of the
earthquake and its actual consequential damage (its distribution /extent).

▪ Relating intensity to peak ground acceleration is, in principle, illogical.

▪ The necessity of bridging the distance between historical earthquake observations

(based mainly on intensity) and code-defined forces (based entirely on peak ground
acceleration) warrants the efforts expended in correlating the two measures.

▪ The measurement of earthquake size should be based on the amount of energy

released at the focus. Therefore, magnitude scales have been defined as presented
hereafter.
Magnitude-Seismographs
 Magnitude Types
► Local (Richter) magnitude (ML) ► Surface wave magnitude (MS)
▪ It is a measure of the maximum ▪ It is a measure of the amplitudes of LR-
seismic wave amplitude A (in waves with a period of 20 seconds.
microns): ▪ MS is used for large earthquakes:
M L = log (A ) - log(A 0 ) A
M S = log   + 1.66  log(Δ ) + 3.30
where A0 is a calibration factor
T
that depends on distance.
► Moment magnitude (MW)
▪ It accounts for the mechanism of shear
► Body wave magnitude (mb)
that takes place at earthquake sources.
▪ It measures amplitudes of P- It is not related to any wavelength.
waves with periods of about 1.0
▪ Moment magnitude is defined as a
second.
function of the seismic moment M0:
▪ This scale is suitable for deep
earthquakes. M 0 = G A Δu
▪ Magnitude mb is in which G is the shear modulus of the
A
m b = log   + σ(Δ ) material surrounding the fault, A is the
T fault rupture area and Δu is the
in which σ(Δ) is a function of the average displacement slip between
epicentre distance Δ (in degrees), opposite sides of the fault.
the ground motion amplitude A in ▪ M w = 0.67 log (M 0 ) − 10.70
microns and the period T of the
where M0 is in ergs.
wave in sec.
 Magnitude-Saturation
• Magnitude scales do not increase monotonically with earthquake size.

• Saturation is evident as magnitude increases.

• Moment magnitude (Mw) is the only magnitude scale which does not suffer from
the saturation problem for great earthquakes: M ~ M w.

9
MS
8 MJMA
mB
7 ML
Magnitude

mb
6

5
M~Mw
4

2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Moment Magnitude Mw

Saturation of magnitude scales

 Magnitude (continued)

Earthquake Earthquake Epicentre Reference Saturatio

Type Author Applicability
Size Depth distance Parameter n
Regional
ML Richter, 1935 Small Shallow < 600 km Wave amplitude
(California)
Gutenberg & Small-to- Wave amplitude
mb Deep > 1000 km World-wide
Richter, 1956 Medium (P-waves)
Richter &
Wave Amplitude
Ms Gutenberg, Large Shallow > 2000 km World-wide
(LR-waves)
1936
Kanamori,
Mw All All All Seismic Moment World-wide n.a.
1977

▪ The general correlation between magnitude M and A is as follows:

M = log (A ) + f (d, h ) + C S + C R
in which the function f(d,h) accounts for epicentral distance d and focal depth h.
The coefficients CS and CR are station and regional corrections, respectively.
 EQ Magnitude Relationships
▪ Magnitude-moment relationships have been defined empirically:

log (M 0 ) = 1.5 M S + 16.1 m b = 0.63 M S + 2.5

▪ There are even some magnitude-intensity relationships derived semi-empirically,

e.g., for USA, where h is the focal depth and Io is epicentral intensity I0

M L = 0.67 I 0 + 1.00 m b = 0.49 I 0 + 1.66

M S = 0.66 I 0 + 1.70 log (h ) − 1.40

▪ Seismic moment M0 measures the energy E released by fault rupture during

earthquakes. The following relationship is applicable to all source mechanisms,
where Δ is the stress drop Δ = 1-2 and G is the shear modulus of the material
surrounding the fault.
Δτ
E= M0
2G
▪ Earthquake magnitude can be used to quantify the amount of energy released
during fault rupture. Relationships between magnitudes and seismic energy exist,
e.g.,
where E is in ergs. As the magnitude
log (E ) = 1.5 M S + 11.8 increases by one unit, the energy increases
by a factor of 31.6.
 Magnitude Ms vs Seismic Energy 1 erg = 1 x 10-7 joule
1 erg = 2.390057361377 x 10-14 kg (explosives)

log (E ) = 1.5 M S + 11.8

Correlation between magnitude and energy release

where E is in ergs. As the magnitude increases by one unit, the energy increases by a factor of 31.6.
 Earthquake magnitude and fault rupture parameters
► for inter-plate earthquakes ► for intra-plate earthquakes
▪ Surface wave magnitude M S as a ▪ Average source parameters and
function of the fault rupture length relevant magnitude scales are
L, the fault surface rupture S, and
the maximum observed listed below:
displacement of fault D :
Rupture Slip log M0 (dyne-
mb MS
length (km) (m) cm)
M S (L ) = 6.04 + 0.71 log(L ) 2.1 0.01 4.5 3.35 22.2
3.8 0.03 5.0 4.35 23.2

M S = 4.15 + log (S) 7.0 0.11 5.5 5.35 24.2

13.0 0.34 6.0 6.35 25.2

M S = a + b log (D ) 24.0 1.10 6.5 7.35 26.2

45.0 3.70 7.0 8.32 27.2

where the displacement D is in metres, 58.0 5.80 7.2 8.53 27.6

while coefficients a and b are 75.0 9.20 7.4 8.87 28.0
given below. 85.0 11.50 7.5 9.00 28.2

Fault Mechanism a b

Normal 6.67 0.75

Reverse 6.79 1.31
Strike-slip 6.97 0.80

Using the equations for inter-plate earthquakes may overestimate fault rupture lengths.
 Source-to-Site Effects
The characteristics of seismic waves are altered as they travel from the source to the
site of civil engineering works. These source-to-site-effects:
➢ Directional Effects
➢ Site Effects
➢ Dispersion and Incoherence

► Rupture Directivity

▪ Directivity occurs because fault ruptures are moving wave sources which travel at
a finite velocity along the fault and beyond.

▪ The engineering implication of such directivity effects is that sites which are
equidistant from the source will be subjected to varying degrees of shaking from
the same earthquake.

▪ Rupture directivity also causes the polarisation of ground motion. Polarisation

causes more intense shaking in the fault-normal direction than in the fault-parallel
direction.
 Directional Effects (continued)

▪ As the fault rupture moves away from the epicentre it generates ground motion from
each segment of the breaking fault. The ground motion radiates outwards in all
directions and the seismic energy propagates through expanding wave fronts.

▪ The over-riding of stress waves or ‘constructive interference’ results in larger ground

motion magnification with shorter total duration in the direction of rupture
propagation.

Directivity effects on sites toward and away from direction of fault rupture
 Site Effects-Site Resonance Effect
▪ The ratio between the period of the
site and that of the building is Site Soil Material Depth, H (m)
important in estimating the (type)
1< H < 6 7 < H < 15 H ≥ 15
amplification effects; this is
Loose saturated 60 - -
referred to as ‘site resonance’. sand
Sandy clay 100 250 -
▪ The site period TS for uniform Fine saturated sand 110 - -
single soil layer on bedrock can be
Clay/sand mix 140 - -
estimated from the relationship: Dense sand 160 - -
4H
TS = Gravel with stone 180 - -
vS Medium gravel 200 - -

where H and vS are the depth of soil Clayey sand with - 330 -
gravel
layer and soil shear wave velocity,
Medium gravel - - 780
respectively.
Hard sandstone - - 1200

▪ Periods associated to higher modes Shear wave velocity for foundation materials
can be determined as follows:
1 4H It is recommended that the ratio
TS, n = between the building and site periods
2 n −1 v S be as distinct from unity as possible.
in which n represents the n-th mode
of vibration (n >1).
 Site Effects-Amplification on Amplitude

▪ In alluvial surface layers vibrations are amplified due to multi-reflection effects.

▪ The ratio of the amplitude a g at the ground surface to the amplitude at the lower
boundary layer (bedrock) a b is given by:
1
−
ag  2 ωH ωH 2
4H 
=  cos + 2 2
sin 
TS = ab  vs vs 
vS
in which  is the natural circular frequency of the soil layer and  is the wave-
propagation impedance:
ρs vs
=
ρb vb
where  and v are the density and velocity of the surface layer (subscript s) and
lower layer (subscript b), respectively.
 Site Effects-Site Response
▪ Local site conditions may affect significantly the amplitude and frequency content
of earthquake ground motions. Also, soil response in earthquakes depends on the
amplitude, frequencies and duration of motion:

➢ Long duration shaking increases the susceptibility to liquefaction of saturated

and partially saturated soils.

➢ High amplitude motion tends to cause inelasticity in the soil.

– When the soil responds elastically, the observed motions at the surface are
amplified proportional to the input ground motion.

– For inelastic response, the soil absorbs large amounts of the energy
corresponding to incoming large amplitude ground motions. This will make
vibrations eventually exhibit lower accelerations and large displacements,
corresponding to long periods.

▪ Nonlinearity of soil response and topographical effects may also significantly

influence ground motion parameters.

▪ The most important topographical parameter influencing local amplification of

ground motion is the steepness of a ridge.
Dispersion and Incoherence of Earthquake Ground Motions
▪ The coherence of two ground motions is a measure of correlation of amplitudes
and phase angles at different frequencies. Incoherence increases significantly for
higher frequencies.

▪ Dispersion and incoherence (local spatial variability) may be thought of as the

result of the combination of three effects:
i. Wave passage effect: represents the time delay in the arrival of seismic waves on the
ground surface at different stations or sites;

ii. Extended source effect: number and size of earthquake sources affecting the seismicity at
a site may cause delays in the arrival time of waves;

iii. Ray path effect: caused by reflection and refraction of waves through the soil during their
propagation, non-homogeneities of soil layers and other differences in local soil conditions
under the various stations.
Sources of local spatial
variability of ground
motions: wave passage
effect (left), extended
source effect (middle)
and ray path effects
(right)
 Dispersion and Incoherence (continued)

▪ Dispersion and incoherence of earthquake ground motions do not generally affect

short span structures but they may significantly influence the dynamic (and static)
response of long span structures.

▪ Significant spatial variability may often occur whenever the large plan dimensions
are combined with irregularities in the soil profile along the travel path.

▪ For long distances and rather stiff structures totally uncorrelated ground motions
with appropriate frequency content should be considered.
 Problem

What is the natural period of a layered soil with medium gravel of depth 40m?
Is it safe to build a multi-storey building with fundamental period of vibration
equal to 1.5 seconds, as that displayed in the figure below, on a site with the
above soil type? Is this site more suitable for a particular type of structure
from those shown below?
 Effects of Earthquakes
▪ Comprehensive regional
earthquake impact assessment
Hazard Physical Assessment Social and Economic
requires an interdisciplinary Event Damage of Impact Consequences
framework that encompasses Building Stock
Short Term Long Term

the definition of the hazard Emergency Shelter,

Temporary Housing
Housing Relocation,
Displacement

event, physical damage and

social and economic Transportation
Direct Damage, Price
Increases, Business Economic
Fiscal Impacts,
Business Failure,
Loss
consequences.
Interruption, Supply
Systems Disruption
Job Loss,
Reconstruction

Social Vulnerability
▪ Physical damage should be Infrastructure Casualties, Fatalities, Health Psychological
Systems Health Care Disruption Distress,

evaluated for the building Chronic Injury

stocks, lifeline systems,

transportation networks and Critical Social
Disruption Family Stress,
Facilities Emergency Supplies,

critical facilities. Family Separation Neighborhood

Disruption

▪ Short and long term effects

should be considered in Integrated view of Hazard, Physical, Social and
quantifying social and Economic Consequences
economic consequences.
 Effects of Earthquakes (continued)
▪ The fundamental components of
earthquake loss assessment are:

i. Hazard or exposure;
ii. Inventory or assets;
iii. Vulnerability or fragility.

▪ Hazard or exposure is the

description of the earthquake
ground motion.

▪ Inventory comprises the assets

that are subjected to the hazard.

▪ Vulnerability or fragility is the

sensitivity of the assets to damage
from shaking.
Fundamental components for earthquake
▪ Seismic risk is the product of loss estimations
hazard and vulnerability for a unit
value of assets.
 Effects of Earthquakes (continued)

Earthquake Effects

Direct Effects Indirect Effects

Ground Shaking Landslides

Ground Effects
Ground Cracking Tsunamis
Ground Effects

Ground Lurching Seiches

Differential Ground Settlement
Avalanches
Soil Liquefaction
Rockfalls
Lateral Spreading
Landslides
Floods

Other Effects
Rockfalls
Fires
Structural Effects

Vibrations of Structures
Toxic
Falling Objects
Contamination
Structural Damage
Structural Collapse

Direct and indirect earthquake effects

 Damage to Buildings and Lifelines
► Typical damage to building structures
Masonry & RC Steel & Composite
Structural Structural
Observed damage Observed damage
element/system element/system
Shear failure, concrete cover Flange and/or web yielding, local
Beams Beams
spalling, rebar buckling buckling, brittle fracture
Cracking, crushing, concrete cover
Flange yielding, local buckling, brittle
spalling, rebar buckling and pull-out,
Columns Columns fracture, splice failure, member
flexural and shear failure, short
buckling
column effect
Cracking, crushing, rebar buckling Local and member buckling, brittle
Connections Braces
and pull-out, shear failure fracture
X-shaped cracks, crushing, rebar Yielding, local buckling, brittle
Structural Walls
buckling, overturning, rocking, Connections fracture, weld cracks, excessive panel
and Infills
sliding deformations, bolt rupture
Bolt anchorage rupture, weld cracks
Settlement, rebar pull-out, rocking,
Foundations Foundations and fracture, pull-out, excessive base
sliding, uplifting
plate deformations
Soft and weak storeys, excessive
Soft and weak storeys, excessive
residual deformations, distress in
residual deformations, distress in
Frames diaphragms and connectors, Frames
diaphragms and connectors,
pounding, rocking, uplifting, fall of
pounding, uplifting
parapets and brick chimneys
 Damage to Buildings and Lifelines (continued)

► Typical types of damage to lifelines

Highways & Railways Gas & Electric Power Water & Waste Systems Communication Systems
Bending and shear failure Cracks and ruptures in Breakage of pipelines and Damage to electronic
of RC piers the network leakages in the network switching systems
Local and overall buckling Brittle fracture to
of steel and composite porcelain components in Sloshing and suction damage
Damage to phone lines
piers. Brittle fracture of high-voltage transmission in metal storage tanks
welded components stations and substations
Pounding and unseating Damage to switching
Elephant foot and shell Damage to telephone
at hinge seats and deck systems, cranes and
buckling in metal tanks system buildings
supports tanks in power plants
Cracks, large gaps and/or
Disruptions of electric Cracks and leaks in concrete Malfunctioning of computer
settlements in pavements
power supply basins networks
of highways
Malfunctioning of process Malfunctioning and/or
Rails bending or rupture Fires and explosions due
equipments associated with collapse of transmission
and train derails to gas leaks
ground settlement or rocking towers

▪ Reconnaissance reports of damage to lifelines are published by the Earthquake

Engineering Research Institute (http:\\www.eeri.org)
 Effects on the Ground
► Surface rupture 1995 earthquake in Japan

▪ Rupture of the ground surface may be

induced by intense and long shaking as
well as direct fault ruptures. These may
generate deep cracks and large gaps in the
ground.

▪ The effects of major fault ruptures can be

extreme on structures; buildings can be
ripped into parts. Cracks and gaps in the
ground may also cause serious damage to
transportation systems and underground
utility networks.

▪ Earthquake-induced ground shaking may

cause cracking of the ground surface in
soft, saturated soil.

▪ Movements of soil or rock masses at right

angles to cliffs and steep slopes occur.
Structures founded either in part or whole
on such masses may experience significant
lateral and vertical deformations.
 Effects on the Ground (continued)

► Settlement and uplift

▪ Fault ruptures may cause large vertical movements of the ground.

▪ Granular soils are compacted by the ground shaking induced by earthquakes,

leading to subsidence. This type of ground movement affects dry, partially
saturated and saturated soils with high permeability.

Effects of ground settlements and uplift during the 1999 Kocaeli (Turkey) earthquake: flooding
(left) and artificial water falls (right)
 Effects on the Ground (continued)
► Liquefaction
▪ Excessive build-up of pore water pressure during earthquakes may lead to the
loss of stiffness and strength of soils. The excessive pore water pressure cause
ejection of the soil through holes in the ground, thus creating sand boils.
▪ The ejection of soil causes loss of support of foundations and thus structures
tilt or sink into the ground .

▪ Retaining walls may tilt

or break from the fluid-
like pressure of the
liquefied zone. Heavy
building structures may
tilt due to the loss of
bearing strength by
underlying soil.

▪ Soil liquefaction may

cause the floating to the
ground surface of pile Sand boils during the 1998
foundations with low Adana-Ceyhan (Turkey)
axial loads and earthquake (left)
Collapse due to soil liquefaction: settlement and
underground light- tilting of buildings in the 1964 Niigata (Japan)
earthquake (left); soil boils and cracks at pier
weight storage tanks.
foundations of Nishinomiya-ko bridge in the 1995
Kobe (Japan) earthquake (right)
 Effects on the Ground (continued)
► Landslides

▪ Landslides include several types of ground

failure and movement.

▪ The scale of such landslides on natural slopes

can be large enough to devastate entire
villages or towns, such as the Huascaran
Avalanche triggered by the Perú earthquake
(1970, Mw = 7.8).

▪ Most of the more than 1,000 landslides and

rockfalls occurred in the epicentral zone in the landslide in Santa Monica in the 1994
Santa Cruz Mountains during the 1989 Loma Northridge (California) earthquake
Prieta earthquake.

▪ In the 1994 Northridge earthquake landslides

that occurred in Santa Monica, along the
Pacific Coast Highway, caused damage to
several family houses built on the cliffs
overlooking the ocean.

▪ Relatively few landslides were triggered by the

Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in Japan. This is
partly due to the fact that the earthquake
occurred during the dry season and the 2005 Kashmir (Pakistan) earthquake
affected area is mainly flat.
 Problem
The 17 August 1999 Kocaeli (Mw=7.4) and 12 November 1999 Düzce (Mw=7.2)
earthquakes were the largest natural disasters of the twentieth century in
Turkey after the 1939 Erzincan earthquake. These earthquakes caused severe
damage and collapse especially of building structures. The figure below
shows damage observed in the cities of Adapazari and Izmit (Kocaeli
earthquake). Comment on the relationship between the observed damage and
the earthquake-induced ground effects illustrated earlier.

Damage observed during the 17 August 1999 Kocaeli in Adapazari (left) and Izmit in Turkey (right)
 Human and Financial Losses
▪ During the twentieth century, over 1,200 destructive earthquakes occurred world-
wide and caused damage estimated at more than $1.0 trillion.
▪ Monetary losses from earthquakes are increasing rapidly.
▪ Between 1990 and 1999 annual earthquake losses were estimated at $20 billion.
▪ It is estimated that on average 10,000 people per year were killed by earthquakes
between 1900 and 1999.
▪ Between 1900 and 2007, deaths due to earthquakes totalled about 1.8 million,
caused by 1,250 earthquakes.
300000 10 300000 10
Kansu, China (MS=8.5) Tangshan, China (MS=7.8)
250000 250000
8 8

200000 200000
Deaths (No.)

Magnitude (MS)

Magnitude (MS)
Deaths (No.)
6 6
150000 150000

`
4 4
100000 Deaths Magnitude 100000 Deaths Magnitude

2 2
50000 50000

0 0 0 0

1983

2005
1971
1976
1978
1980

1987
1989
1990
1992
1994
1998
2001
1923

1950
1906

1915

1939

1948

1960

1963

1964

1970

Year Year

Death toll due to earthquakes: 1900-1970 (left) and 1971-2005 (right)

 Human and Financial Losses (continued)
▪ Several reconnaissance reports have shown that building collapses caused 75%
of earthquake fatalities during the last century.

▪ Earthquake damage resulting in the collapse of monuments, historical places of

worship and stately buildings represents an irreplaceable loss in terms of cultural
heritage, while their restoration costs exceed by far the gross national product
(GNP) of many affected nations.

▪ One of the most severe consequences of earthquakes is the cost of recovery and
reconstruction.

▪ It is instructive to note, however, that the absolute financial loss is less critical to
an economy than the loss as a percentage of the GNP.
▪ The ‘business interruption’ issue has emerged lately as a major concern to
industry and hence to communities.

▪ Another aspect of the economic impact is the ‘loss of market share’ which results
from interruption to production in industrial facilities and difficulties in re -claiming
the share of the market that the affected business previously held.
 Human and Financial Losses (continued)
Country Earthquake Year Loss ($ bn) GNP ($ bn) Loss (% GNP)
Nicaragua Managua 1972 2.0 5.0 40.0
Guatemala Guatemala City 1976 1.1 6.1 18.0
Romania Bucharest 1977 0.8 26.7 3.0
Yugoslavia Montenegro 1979 2.2 22.0 10.0
Italy Campania 1980 45.0 661.8 6.8
Mexico Mexico City 1985 5.0 166.7 3.0
Greece Kalamata 1986 0.8 40.0 2.0
El Salvador San Salvador 1986 1.5 4.8 31.0
USSR Armenia 1988 17.0 566.7 3.0
Iran Manjil 1990 7.2 100.0 7.2
Turkiye Kocaeli 1999 20 (EM-DAT)
Turkiye Maraş 2023 34 (EM-DAT)

Earthquake financial losses